神经学家揭示大脑如何存储特定的恐惧记忆
文章来源：未知 文章作者：meng 发布时间： 05:53
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The brain is capable of holding and retrieving（取回，恢复） memories for specific fears, revealing a more sophisticated storage and recall capacity than previously thought, neuroscientists have found. The study, which appears in the journal Nature Neuroscience, may have implications（含义，启示） for treating post-traumatic stress syndrome（综合症） &as scientists begin to understand how different fears are stored in the brain, they can move toward addressing specific fear memories. The research was conducted by researchers at New York University's Center for Neural Science, the Department of Psychiatry at NYU School of Medicine&Bellevue Hospital Center, the Copernicus Center for Interdisciplinary（跨学科研究） Studies in Krakow, Poland, Universit& Paris-Sud, and the Emotional Brain Institute at the Nathan S. Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research.
The research focused on the brain's amygdala（杏仁核，扁桃体） , which has previously been shown to store fear memories. However, prior studies have indicated that the amygdala does not discriminate（区别，辨别） among the different threats it holds and processes. In other words, whether you are afraid of dogs because you were once bitten by a dog or you are afraid of pizza because you once nearly choked to death eating it, all the amygdala remembers is that both of these experiences were scary. By contrast, other brain areas, such as cortex（皮质，树皮） , ensures that all other aspects of these fearful events in your life are remembered.
The scientists on the Nature Neuroscience study sought to determine if there were differences in how the amygdala processes and remembers fears. To do so, they focused on a process called memory consolidation（巩固，合并） in which an experience is captured, or encoded, then stored. Once consolidation occurs, memories may be long lasting&one experience may create memories that last a lifetime. However, whenever recalled, memories become labile&that is, susceptible to（易受&&影响的） changes. This process is called reconsolidation（再压密，重新巩固） . In life, reconsolidation allows updating existing memories. But this process also serves as a valuable methodological（方法的） tool as it lets researchers control the modification of memories.
When it comes to developing fear memories, one model posits that during a fear experience, a neutral stimulus (e.g., a musical passage) becomes associated with a negative encounter (e.g., a dog bite). Therefore, future occurrences of this neutral stimulus, or conditioned stimulus (CS), forewarns the onset of the negative encounter, or unconditioned stimulus (US). Previous research shows that the association between a CS and a US is processed and stored in the amygdala.
To replicate this process, the researchers devised an experiment using laboratory rats. In it, they paired two distinct audio tones, which served as the neutral stimulus, or conditioned stimulus (CS), with mild electric shocks to different parts of the rats' bodies. As a result, the rats linked a mild shock to a certain part of their bodies with a certain tone.
Under the memory reconsolidation model, exposing an organism to any aspect of the learned experience brings this memory back to mind and makes it susceptible to changes. Thus, if two distinct tones were each paired with two distinct electric shocks and if the amygdala does not discriminate among different threats, then re-exposing a rat to any of these shocks should cause lability of all fear memories stored in the amygdala.
However, the Nature Neuroscience study yielded quite different results. The researchers found that re-exposing a rat to a particular shock (that is, one applied to a certain part of the body), followed by an injection of an antibiotic（抗生素） known to disrupt reconsolidation processes, impaired only these associations that were linked to this particular shock. Despite the disruption of one type of fear memory, rats were still able to express fear behavior to the tone which had been paired with a shock applied to another part of the body.
The finding demonstrates that the amygdala makes distinctions among the fear memories it holds and retrieves.神经元中的记忆
文章来源：未知 文章作者：enread 发布时间： 07:23
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When we learn, we associate a
experience either with other
or with a certain type of behaviour. The neurons in the
cortex that transmit the information modify the synaptic connections that they have with the other neurons. According to a generally-accepted model of synaptic plasticity（突触可塑性）, a neuron that communicates with others of the same kind emits an electrical impulse as well as
transiently. This electrical pulse, combined with the signal received from other neurons, acts to
the synapses. How is it that some neurons are caught up in the communication interplay even when they are barely connected? This is the crucial chicken-or-egg puzzle of synaptic plasticity that a team led by Anthony Holtmaat, professor in the Department of Basic Neurosciences in the
of Medicine at UNIGE, is aiming to solve. The results of their research into memory in silent neurons can be found in the latest edition of Nature. Learning and memory are governed by a
of sustainable synaptic strengthening. When we
on a learning experience, our brain associates a sensory experience either with other stimuli or with a certain form of behaviour. The neurons in the cerebral cortex responsible for ensuring the transmission of the relevant information, then modify the synaptic connections that they have with other neurons. This is the very arrangement that subsequently enables the brain to
the way information is processed when it is met again, as well as predicting its consequences.
Neuroscientists typically induce electrical pulses in the neurons artificially in order to perform research on synaptic .
The neuroscientists from UNIGE, however, chose a different approach in their attempt to discover what happens naturally in the neurons when they receive sensory stimuli. They observed the cerebral cortices of mice whose whiskers were repeatedly
mechanically without an artificially-induced electrical pulse. The
use their whiskers as a
they are, therefore, a key element for perception in mice.
点击收听单词发音&&
adj.知觉的，感觉的，知觉器官的
参考例句：
Human powers of sensory discrimination are limited.人类感官分辨能力有限。
The sensory system may undergo long-term adaptation in alien environments.感觉系统对陌生的环境可能经过长时期才能适应。
n.传感器，探测设备，感觉器（官）
参考例句：
The temperature sensor is enclosed in a protective well.温度传感器密封在保护套管中。
He plugged the sensor into a outlet.他把传感器插进电源插座。
n.刺激（物）
参考例句：
It is necessary to curtail or alter normally coexisting stimuli.必需消除或改变正常时并存的刺激。
My sweat glands also respond to emotional stimuli.我的汗腺对情绪刺激也能产生反应。
adj.脑的，大脑的；有智力的，理智型的
参考例句：
Your left cerebral hemisphere controls the right-hand side of your body.你的左半脑控制身体的右半身。
He is a precise,methodical,cerebral man who carefully chooses his words.他是一个一丝不苟、有条理和理智的人，措辞谨慎。
活动的，活性的
参考例句：
"I didn't say we'd got to stop activating the masses! “我并没说就此不发动！ 来自子夜部分
Presumably both the very small size and activating influence of fluorine atoms contribute to this exception. 这大概是由于氟原子半径小和活性高这两个原因的影响，氟原子对这种例外做出了贡献。
n.（神经元的）突触( synapse的名词复数 )；染色体结合( synapsis的名词复数 )；联会；突触；（神经元的）触处
参考例句：
Nerve cells communicate with one another at the synapses, where their membranes almost touch. 神经细胞在突触部位彼此沟通，在这里它们的膜几乎接触到一起了。 来自辞典例句
Glutamatergic synapses are common excitatory chemical connections in mammalian central nervous system. 谷氨酸性突触是哺乳动物神经系统的主要兴奋性突触。 来自互联网
vt.刺激，使兴奋；激励，使…振奋
参考例句：
Your encouragement will stimulate me to further efforts.你的鼓励会激发我进一步努力。
Success will stimulate the people for fresh efforts.成功能鼓舞人们去作新的努力。
n.才能；学院，系；(学院或系的)全体教学人员
参考例句：
He has a great faculty for learning foreign languages.他有学习外语的天赋。
He has the faculty of saying the right thing at the right time.他有在恰当的时候说恰当的话的才智。
n.机械装置；机构，结构
参考例句：
The bones and muscles are parts of the mechanism of the body.骨骼和肌肉是人体的组成部件。
The mechanism of the machine is very complicated.这台机器的结构是非常复杂的。
vi.乘船，着手，从事，上飞机
参考例句：
He is about to embark on a new business venture.他就要开始新的商业冒险活动。
Many people embark for Europe at New York harbor.许多人在纽约港乘船去欧洲。
v.使优化 [=optimise]
参考例句：
We should optimize the composition of the Standing Committees.优化人大常委会组成人员的结构。
We should optimize our import mix and focus on bringing in advanced technology and key equipment.优化进口结构，着重引进先进技术和关键设备。
n.机械( mechanism的名词复数 )；机械装置；[生物学] 机制；机械作用
参考例句：
The research will provide direct insight into molecular mechanisms. 这项研究将使人能够直接地了解分子的机理。 来自《简明英汉词典》
He explained how the two mechanisms worked. 他解释这两台机械装置是如何工作的。 来自《简明英汉词典》
参考例句：
The exhibition has stimulated interest in her work. 展览增进了人们对她作品的兴趣。
The award has stimulated her into working still harder. 奖金促使她更加努力地工作。
n.啮齿目动物( rodent的名词复数 )
参考例句：
Rodents carry diseases and are generally regarded as pests. 啮齿目动物传播疾病，常被当作害虫对待。 来自《简明英汉词典》
Some wild rodents in Africa also harbor the virus. 在非洲，有些野生啮齿动物也是储毒者。 来自辞典例句
v.给（船舶、飞机等）引航，导航( navigate的现在分词 )；（从海上、空中等）横越；横渡；飞跃
参考例句：
These can also be very useful when navigating time-based documents, such as video and audio. 它对于和时间有关的文档非常有用，比如视频和音频文档。 来自About Face 3交互设计精髓
Vehicles slowed to a crawl on city roads, navigating slushy snow. 汽车在市区路上行驶缓慢，穿越泥泞的雪地。 来自互联网英语背单词软件哪个好？_英语单词大全_新视野英语网_新视野大学英语读写试听说教程答案翻译_好听的英文歌曲_好听的英文名
英语单词大全英语背单词软件哪个好？时间： 13:46:07&&作者：新视野英语网&&来源：&&查看：346&&评论：0内容摘要：日，新华网报道了一篇文章：《我国大学生学英语十几年 无障碍交流者不超5%》, 引起了人们的共鸣。2013年底，教育部网站披露了已经制定完成的考试招生改革总体方案的部分细节。    其实， 随着全球一体化进程的加快，英语在我们的日常生活和工作中的重要性愈加显现。...
日，新华网报道了一篇文章：《我国大学生学英语十几年 无障碍交流者不超5%》, 引起了人们的共鸣。2013年底，教育部网站披露了已经制定完成的考试招生改革总体方案的部分细节。
& & 其实， 随着全球一体化进程的加快，英语在我们的日常生活和工作中的重要性愈加显现。 英语考试之所以被人们所诟病，不是因为英语本身，而是人们投入在英语学习上的投入产出比太低了！ 中国人从幼儿园开始学英语，学到大学毕业，大部分仍然读不了英文原著，写不了英语文章，无法进行英语交流。所以，批评者认为花那么多时间却学不到一门使用技能，实在是一件劳民伤财的事情，不如减少学习者投入的精力。
学英文为什么总是学不好？究其原因，词汇量不足是最大最直接的因素。
& & 有专业人士做了一份调查，80%的英语学习者在背单词上花费了超过80%的精力，绝大部分人死在了背单词的路上。很多通过了英语四六级或托福考试的学生，考完试之后很快也就把词汇忘得七七八八，到头来仍然读不懂用不了英文。
因此很多教育专家们说：词汇量是英语学习者的&死穴&。
& & 过去，人们普遍使用&单词卡片&的形式进行单词记忆。随着科技的发展进步，依靠电脑软件帮助人们背单词，逐渐成为一种时尚。但是，人们很快发现，很多背单词软件的效率并不理想&&可以提高短期内的英语学习效率，但背外语单词之所以难，就是因为背单词是一个长期的过程，时间一长，人们记忆的速度与遗忘的速度相抵消了！
在现代神经生物学的范畴里，英语词汇记忆属于长时记忆功能，它最显著的特征是要不停地对抗遗忘。很多背单词软件的研发者是英语爱好者或者电脑程序员，并不明白记忆过程的脑科学机理。
& & 2012年秋季，在美国著名大学城波士顿，一家名为MemoryLabs（记忆工场）的脑与神经科学专业研究机构在世界范围内首次提出了人类单词记忆认知模型&&人类神经元记忆四度模型&&LRRP模型，即学-记-忆-习模型。该模型以记忆认知的全过程为基础，创造性地将单词记忆学习分为四个阶段，并对每个阶段对应的任务、能力、大脑神经活动的过程进行了详述。
& & 2013年，的科学家们将研究成果转化为一款应用级软件&&Memoryer（记忆者）神经网络背单词软件。独创了四阶段长时记忆法，分别是学&认&再忆&习练四个过程。通过单词的学习、补缺、句子完型等，对应认知神经活动中的编码-存储-再认-再忆-分类-内隐记忆过程。
& & 该软件一经面世，即在在线教育和英语学习领域引起巨大轰动，其独步全球的6项专有技术：脑波反馈、LRRP认知模型、强制遗忘算法、人工智能虚拟教师、个性化记忆特征测试、多核个性化记忆引擎，使得Memoryer在抗遗忘方面处于世界领先水平，被认为是&掌握了在线学习领域的底层技术&， 国内30多家主要媒体于第一时间进行了报道。
随后，Memoryer在北京各重点大学和重点中学掀起了一股高潮，针对自己的个性化记忆特征，使用&第三代背单词软件&&&神经网络软件进行学习，成为年轻人的一种时尚，别誉为&记忆神器&。
& & 2014年初，拥有百万用户群体的2014年《商道》全国大学生管理决策模拟大赛，将Memoyer做为大学学习的唯一推荐产品，面向全国大学生推荐。
& & 2014年春节期间，中央电视台某知名制片人经熟人介绍，为其女儿购买了一套记忆工场的Memoryer（记忆者）神经网络背单词软件， 在使用了一周之后，对该软件做出了如下评价：
& & 1、做了&新东方&做不了的（任何英语培训机构和辅导老师、家长都帮不了学生背单词）；
& & 2、学习成果标准化、可视化（其他背单词软件很难做到）；
& & 3、跟学习者互动（人工智能虚拟老师）；
& & 4、背过忘不了（长时记忆系统，隔夜强制遗忘算法）；
& & 5、帮助家长监测孩子背单词情况（学生玩电脑游戏、走神等，家长可以一目了然）；
& & 6、特别适合短期内大量突击单词（应付考试的利器）。
& & 目前，记忆工场的科学家团队在波士顿的实验室里继续进行学习与记忆的研究工作，一种可穿戴的脑波扫描设备用于背单词时的学习与大脑活动状态监测，该产品已处于实验室验证阶段。
随着人类在脑与神经科技以及人工智能领域的不断突破，科学家们相信：终有一天人类会基本掌握大脑认知的内在原理，并运用最新的科学技术和设备，革命性地改变人类学习认知的方式和方法。
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