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Other names
C F F F G C Pyroxylin
Identifiers
Properties
Appearance
Yellowish white cotton-like filaments
160 to 170 °C (320 to 338 °F; 433 to 443 K) (ignites)
4.4 °C (39.9 °F; 277.5 K)
Lethal dose or concentration (LD, LC):
10 mg/kg (mouse, )
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their
(at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
  (  ?)
Nitrocellulose (also known as cellulose nitrate, flash paper, flash cotton, guncotton, and flash string) is a highly flammable compound formed by
through exposure to
or another powerful nitrating agent. When used as a
or , it was originally known as guncotton.
Partially nitrated cellulose has found uses as a plastic film and in inks and wood coatings. In 1862 the first man-made plastic, nitrocellulose (branded ), was created by
from cellulose treated with nitric acid and a solvent. In 1868, American inventor
developed a plastic material he named , improving on Parkes' invention by plasticizing the nitrocellulose with
so that it could be processed into finished form and used as a . Celluloid was used by , and other suppliers, from the late 1880s as a
in photography, X-ray films, and motion picture films, and was known as . After numerous fires caused by unstable nitrate films, "safety film" () started to be used from the 1930s in the case of X-ray stock and from 1948 for motion picture film.
on display in the : Its
motor was prepared from nitrocellulose.
A nitrocellulose membrane stained with
dye for protein detection during
ball, prepared from nitrocellulose (Celluloid)
discovered in 1832 that nitric acid, when combined with starch or wood fibers, would produce a lightweight combustible
material, which he named xylo?dine. A few years later in 1838, another French chemist,
(teacher of
and ), treated paper and cardboard in the same way.
obtained a similar material, which he called nitramidine. These substances were highly unstable and were not practical explosives.
However, around 1846 , a German-Swiss chemist, discovered a more practical solution.
As he was working in the kitchen of his home in , he spilled a bottle of concentrated nitric acid on the kitchen table. He reached for the nearest cloth, a cotton apron, and wiped it up. He hung the apron on the stove door to dry, and, as soon as it was dry, there was a flash as the apron ignited. His preparation method was the first to be widely imitated—one part of fine
wool to be immersed in 15 parts of an equal blend of
and . After two minutes, the cotton was removed and washed in cold water to set the
level and remove all acid residue. It was then slowly dried at a temperature below 40 °C (about 100 °F). Sch?nbein collaborated with the Frankfurt professor , who had discovered the process independently in the same year. By coincidence, a third chemist, the
professor F. J. Otto had also produced guncotton in 1846 and was the first to publish the process, much to the disappointment of Sch?nbein and B?ttger.[]
The process uses nitric acid to convert cellulose into cellulose nitrate and water:
3 HNO3+ C6H10O5 → C6H7(NO2)3O5 + 3 H2O
The sulfuric acid is present as a
to produce the , NO+
and proceeds by
at the C-OH centers of the cellulose.
Pure nitrocellulose.
Deflagration test of nitrocellulose in slow motion.
Guncotton is made by treating cotton (used as the source of cellulose) with concentrated sulfuric acid and 70% nitric acid[] cooled to 0 °C to produce cellulose trinitrate. While guncotton is dangerous to store, the hazards it presents can be reduced by storing it dampened with various liquids, such as alcohol. For this reason, accounts of guncotton usage dating from the early 20th century refer to "wet guncotton".
The power of guncotton made it suitable for blasting. As a projectile driver, it had around six times the gas generation of an equal volume of
and produced less smoke and less heating.
The patent rights for the manufacture of gun cotton were obtained by John Hall & Son in 1846, and industrial manufacture of the explosive began at a purpose-built factory at
in , a year later. However, the manufacturing process was not properly understood and few safety measures were put in place. A serious explosion in July of that year killed almost two dozen workers, resulting in the immediate closure of the plant. Guncotton manufacture ceased for over 15 years until a safer procedure could be developed.
Further research indicated the importance of very careful washing of the acidified cotton. Unwashed nitrocellulose (sometimes called pyrocellulose) may spontaneously ignite and explode at , as the evaporation of water results in the concentration of unreacted acid.
The British chemist
developed the first safe process for guncotton manufacture, which he patented in 1865. The washing and drying times of the nitrocellulose were both extended to 48 hours and repeated eight times over. The acid mixture was changed to two parts
to one part nitric.
can be controlled by adjusting acid concentrations and reaction temperature. Nitrocellulose is soluble in a mixture of
and ether until nitrogen concentration exceeds 12%. Soluble nitrocellulose, or a solution thereof, is sometimes called .
Various types of , consisting primarily of nitrocellulose
Guncotton containing more than 13% nitrogen (sometimes called insoluble nitrocellulose) was prepared by prolonged exposure to hot, concentrated acids for limited use as a blasting explosive or for
of underwater weapons such as
and . Safe and sustained production of guncotton began at the
in the 1860s, and the material rapidly became the dominant explosive, becoming the standard for military warheads, although it remained too potent to be used as a propellant. More-stable and slower-burning collodion mixtures were eventually prepared using less-concentrated acids at lower temperatures for
in . The first practical smokeless powder made from nitrocellulose, for firearms and artillery ammunition, was invented by French chemist
viewed the development of guncotton with optimism. He referred to the substance several times in his novels. His adventurers carried firearms employing this substance. The most noteworthy reference is in his , in which guncotton was used to launch a projectile into space.
Nitrocellulose film on a light box, showing deterioration, from Library and Archives Canada collection
On May 2, 1887,
filed a patent for "a photographic pellicle and process of producing same ... especially in connection with roller cameras", but the patent was not granted until 13 September 1898. In the meantime, George Eastman had already started production of roll-film using his own process.
Nitrocellulose was used as the first flexible , beginning with
products in August, 1889.
is used as a
for nitrocellulose film, often called nitrate film. Goodwin's patent was sold to , which successfully sued Eastman Kodak for infringement of the patent and was awarded $5,000,000 in 1914 to Goodwin Film.
Nitrate film was used for
photography for some time, where its flammability hazard was most acute, and thus in 1933, became disused for such purposes, along with its uses for motion picture films in 1951, where it was replaced by
with an acetate base. Nitrocellulose X-ray film ignition was the cause behind the
in , which claimed the lives of 123 people during the fire, and a number who were rescued but died several days later due to inhalation of the toxic smoke.
Decayed nitrate film. EYE Film Institute Netherlands.
The use of nitrocellulose film for motion pictures led to the requirement for fireproof projection rooms with wall coverings made of . A training film for projectionists included footage of a controlled ignition of a reel of nitrate film, which continued to burn when fully submerged in water. Unlike many other flammable materials, nitrocellulose does not need air to keep burning, as the reaction produces oxygen similar to a
reaction. Once burning, it is extremely difficult to extinguish. Immersing burning film in water may not extinguish it, and could actually increase the amount of smoke produced. Owing to public safety precautions, the
forbade transport of movies on its system until well past the introduction of safety film.
Cinema fires caused by ignition of nitrocellulose
were the cause of the 1926
in which 48 people died and the 1929
in , which killed 69 children. Today, nitrate film projection is normally highly regulated and requires extensive precautionary measures including extra projectionist health and safety training. Projectors certified to run nitrate films have many precautions, among them the chambering of the feed and takeup reels in thick metal covers with small slits to allow the film to run through. The projector is modified to accommodate several fire extinguishers with nozzles aimed at the film gate. The extinguishers automatically trigger if a piece of flammable fabric placed near the gate starts to burn. While this triggering would likely damage or destroy a significant portion of the projection components, it would prevent a fire which could cause far greater damage. Projection rooms may be required to have automatic metal covers for the projection windows, preventing the spread of fire to the . The
is one of a few theaters in the world that is capable of safely projecting nitrate films, and regularly screens films to the public.
Nitrocellulose was found to gradually decompose, releasing nitric acid and further catalyzing the decomposition (eventually into a flammable powder). Decades later, storage at low temperatures was discovered as a means of delaying these reactions indefinitely. The great majority of films produced during the early 20th century are thought to have been lost either through this accelerating, self-catalyzed disintegration or through studio warehouse fires. Salvaging old films is a major problem for film archivists (see ).
Nitrocellulose film base manufactured by Kodak can be identified by the presence of the word 'nitrate' in dark le the word only in clear letters on a dark background indicates derivation from a nitrate base original negative or projection print, but the film in hand itself may be a later print or copy negative, made on safety film.
manufactured during the era when nitrate films were still in use was marked 'Safety' or 'Safety Film' along one edge in dark letters. , , and
stocks, intended for amateur and other nontheatrical use, were never manufactured with a nitrate base in the west, but rumors exist of 16 mm nitrate film having been produced in the former Soviet Union and/or China.
Cellulose is treated with sulfuric acid and
to give cellulose mononitrate. This was used commercially as 'celluloid', a highly flammable plastic used in the first half of the 20th century for lacquers and photographic film.[]
Nitrate dominated the market for professional-use 35 mm motion picture film from the industry's origins to the early 1950s. While cellulose acetate-based so-called "safety film", notably cellulose diacetate and cellulose acetate propionate, was produced in the gauge for small-scale use in niche applications (such as printing advertisements and other short films to enable them to be sent through the mails without the need for fire safety precautions), the early generations of safety film base had two major disadvantages relative to nitrate: it was much more expensive to manufacture, and considerably less durable in repeated projection. The cost of the safety precautions associated with the use of nitrate was significantly lower than the cost of using any of the safety bases available before 1948. These drawbacks were eventually overcome with the launch of
base film by Eastman Kodak in 1948. Cellulose triacetate superseded nitrate as the film industry's mainstay base very quickly. While Kodak had discontinued some nitrate film stocks earlier, they stopped producing various nitrate roll films in 1950 and ceased production of nitrate 35 mm motion picture film in 1951.
The crucial advantage cellulose triacetate had over nitrate was that it was no more of a fire risk than paper (the stock is often erroneously referred to as "non-flam": this is not true—it is combustible, but not in as volatile or as dangerous a way as nitrate), while it almost matched the cost and durability of nitrate. It remained in almost exclusive use in all film gauges until the 1980s, when / film began to supersede it for intermediate and release printing.
Polyester is much more resistant to
than either nitrate or triacetate. Although triacetate does not decompose in as dangerous a way as nitrate does, it is still subject to a process known as deacetylation, often nicknamed "vinegar syndrome" (due to the
smell of decomposing film) by archivists, which causes the film to shrink, deform, become brittle and eventually unusable. PET, like cellulose mononitrate, is less prone to stretching than other available plastics. By the late 1990s, polyester had almost entirely superseded triacetate for the production of intermediate elements and release prints.[]
Triacetate remains in use for most camera negative stocks because it can be "invisibly" spliced using solvents during negative assembly, while polyester film can only be spliced using adhesive tape patches or ultrasonically, both of which leave visible marks in the frame area. Also, polyester film is so strong, it will not break under tension and may cause serious damage to expensive camera or projector mechanisms in the event of a film jam, whereas triacetate film breaks easily, reducing the risk of damage. Many were opposed to the use of polyester for release prints for precisely this reason, and because ultrasonic splicers are very expensive items, beyond the budgets of many smaller theaters. In practice, though, this has not proved to be as much of a problem as was feared. Rather, with the increased use of automated long-play systems in cinemas, the greater strength of polyester has been a significant advantage in lessening the risk of a film performance being interrupted by a film break.[]
Despite its self-oxidizing hazards, nitrate is still regarded highly as the stock is more transparent than replacement stocks, and older films used denser silver in the emulsion. The combination results in a notably more luminous image with a high contrast ratio.
A , nitrocellulose membrane, or nitrocellulose paper is a sticky
used for immobilizing nucleic acids in
and . It is also used for immobilization of proteins in
for its nonspecific affinity for . Nitrocellulose is widely used as support in diagnostic tests where antigen-antibody binding occurs, e.g., pregnancy tests, U-albumin tests and CRP.
ions make protein transfer more efficient.
In 1846, nitrated cellulose was found to be soluble in
and . The solution was named
and was soon used as a dressing for wounds. It is still in use today in topical skin applications, such as liquid skin and in the application of , the active ingredient in Compound W wart remover.
developed a method of peeling
using nitrocellulose.
invented the
as a replacement for
emulsions, binding light-sensitive
to a glass plate.
are sheets of paper or cloth made from nitrocellulose, which burn almost instantly with a bright flash, leaving no ash.
As a medium for cryptographic , they make the disposal of the pad complete, secure, and efficient.
tests for alpha track etches use it.
For space flight, nitrocellulose was used by
on several missions as a means of jettisoning components of the rocket/space capsule and deploying recovery systems. However, after several missions and flights, it proved not to have the desired explosive properties in a near vacuum environment.
Nitrocellulose
was used as a finish on guitars and saxophones for most of the 20th century and is still used on some current applications. Manufactured by (among others) , the paint was also used on automobiles sharing the same color codes as many guitars including
brands, although it fell out of favor for a number of reasons: pollution, and the way the lacquer yellows and cracks over time.
Nitrocellulose lacquer was also used as an , painted onto fabric-covered aircraft to tighten and provide protection to the material, but has been largely superseded by alternative cellulosics and other materials.
It is used to coat
and to hold staples together in office .
is made from nitrocellulose lacquer as it is inexpensive, dries quickly, and is not damaging to skin.
Nitrocellulose lacquer is spin-coated onto aluminum or glass discs, then a groove is cut with a lathe, to make one-off phonograph records, used as masters for pressing or for play in dance clubs. They are referred to as .
Depending on the manufacturing process, nitrocellulose is
to varying degrees.
picks, and some photographic films have fairly low esterification levels and burn comparatively slowly with some charred residue.
Guncotton, dissolved at about 25% in acetone, forms a lacquer used in preliminary stages of wood finishing to develop a hard finish with a deep lustre.[] It is normally the first coat applied, sanded and followed by other coatings that bond to it.
Because of its explosive nature, not all applications of nitrocellulose were successful. In 1869, with elephants having been poached to near extinction, the
industry offered a 10,000 prize to whomever came up with the best replacement for ivory .
created the winning replacement, which he created with a new material he invented called camphored nitrocellulose—the first , better known as . The invention enjoyed a brief popularity, but the Hyatt balls were extremely flammable, and sometimes portions of the outer shell would explode upon impact. An owner of a billiard saloon in Colorado wrote to Hyatt about the explosive tendencies, saying that he did not mind very much personally but for the fact that every man in his saloon immediately pulled a gun at the sound. The process used by Hyatt to manufacture the billiard balls, patented in 1881, involved placing the mass of nitrocellulose in a rubber bag, which was then placed in a cylinder of liquid and heated. Pressure was applied to the liquid in the cylinder, which resulted in a uniform compression on the nitrocellulose mass, compressing it into a uniform sphere as the heat vaporized the solvents. The ball was then cooled and turned to make a uniform sphere. In light of the explosive results, this process was called the "Hyatt gun method".
, a solution of nitrocellulose in
and , is a flammable liquid.
When dry, nitrocellulose is explosive and can be ignited with heat, spark, or friction. An overheated container of dry nitrocellulose is believed to be the initial cause of the .
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(1843). . 6. Paris: Bechet Jeune. p. 90. Il y a quelques années, M. Braconnot reconnut que l'acide nitrique concentré, convertit l'amidon, le ligneux, la cellulose, et quelques autres substances en un matière qu'il nomma xylo?dine, et que j'appellerai nitramidine. [Some years ago, Mr. Braconnot recognized that concentrated nitric acid converted starch, wood, cellulose, and some other substances into a material that he called xylo?dine, and that I will call nitramidine.]
Sch?nbein first communicated his discovery to the of , Switzerland on March 11, 1846:
[Notice on a change of plant fibers and some other organic substances]. Bericht über die Verhandlungen der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Basel. 7: 26–27.
[On guncotton]. Bericht über die Verhandlungen der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Basel. 7: 27.
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(1846). . Comptes rendus. 23: 678–679.
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