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Statue of the Emperor
showing the draped toga of the 1st century AD.
Clothing in ancient Rome generally comprised the , the , the ,
for these, and .
Wool, the most commonly used fiber, was most likely the first material to be spun. The
were renowned for the quality of their wool, although the Romans never ceased trying to optimise the quality of wool through cross-breeding. The production of linen and hemp was very similar to that of wool and was described by Pliny the Elder. After the harvest, the material would be immersed (most probably in water), it would be skinned and then aired. Once dry, the fibers would be pressed mechanically (with a ) and then smoothed. Following this, the materials were woven. Linen and hemp both are tough and durable materials.
Silk and cotton were imported, from China and
respectively. Silk wa a luxury afforded only to the rich. Due to the cost of imported clothing, quality garments were also woven from .
, that is, cocoons collected from the wild after the insect had eaten its way out, also was known. Wild silk, being of smaller lengths, had to be spun. A rare luxury cloth with a beautiful golden sheen, known as , was made from the long silky filaments or
produced by , a large Mediterranean seashell.
These different fibres had to be prepared in different ways. According to Forbes, their wool contained around 50% fatty , flax and hemp were about 25% impure, silk was between 19 and 25% impure, while cotton (the most pure of all the source fibers) contained only 6% impurities.
Workers hanging up clothing to dry, wall painting from a dye shop (fullonica) at
The Romans had to turn their material with a manual spinner. Iron alum was used as the base fixing agent and it is known that the marine gastropod, , was used as a red dye, due to its
colorant (6,6'-dibromoindigotin); the color of the emperor. The dye was imported from
and was used primarily by wealthy women. Cheaper versions were also produced by counterfeiters. A more widely used tint was , allowing blue or yellow shades, while , a dicotyledon angiosperm, produced a shade of red and was one of the cheapest dyes available. According to Pliny the Elder, a blackish colour was preferred to red. Yellow, obtained from , was expensive and reserved for the clothing of married women or the . There were far fewer colours than in the modern era.[ – ]
Archaeological discoveries of Greek vases[] depict the art of weaving, while writers in the field of antiques mention the art of weaving and fibre production. Some clothes have survived for several centuries and, as clothing is necessary, examples are numerous and diverse. These materials often provide some of the most detailed and precious information on the production means used, on the dyes used, on the nature of the soil where the materials were grown and, therefore, on trade routes and climate, among many other things.
Historical research in the area of ancient clothing is very active and allows researchers to understand a great deal about the lifestyle of the Romans. The materials used were similar to those used by the ancient Greeks, except the tilling process had been ameliorated and the tilled linen and wool were of a far superior quality.
The Romans had two main ways of tanning, one of which was mineral , or "tawing" – making hide into
without the use of tanning, especially by soaking it in a solution of alum and salt. The Romans used tools that resembled those that would be used in the Middle Ages.
The tanned leather was then used to fashion heavy coats to keep Roman soldiers warm during travel. In the more frigid parts of the Empire it was used during cold seasons.
The leather was not given to the soldiers by the military commanders or overseers, but rather from the soldier's wives and family[] before the soldiers left for a campaign.
Although leather sometimes was used for protection against poor weather, its primary use was in footwear and belts.[]
Animal skins were worn over the helmet with bearskins being popular among legionaries and feline among with Praetorians. Ancient Roman taxidermists would retain the entire body and the head, with the front legs tied to fasten over the armor. The animal's head would fit over the soldier's helmet, and mostly was worn by the Roman , who carried the symbol of Rome into battle.
The Romans rarely used goatskin for their leather,[] preferring pig or sheepskin, although the ideal would be the preferred leather was that most readily available – cattle skin. The thickest and most durable leather was used for shoe soles – they had to be durable to endure war.
Roman marble torso from the 1st century AD, showing a woman's clothing
The act of putting on outer garments such as the toga or , was described as amicire, which led to any individual outer garment sometimes being identified as an amictus without it being thought necessary to specify which outer garment was referred to. The equivalent term for the donning of undergarments, such as the tunica, was induere (indutus).
In general, individual clothes were woven on vertical looms during antiquity. This contrasts with the medieval period when cloth was produced on foot-powered horizontal looms that later was made into clothes by tailors. Evidence for the transition between these two distinct systems, from Egypt, suggests that it had begun by 298 AD but it is likely that it was very gradual. The weaver sat at the horizontal loom producing rectangular lengths of cloth which never were wider than the weaver's two arms could reach with the shuttle.
After the 2nd century BC, besides tunics, women wore a simple garment known as a
and usually followed the fashions of their Greek contemporaries. Stolae typically comprised two rectangular segments of cloth joined at the side by
and buttons in a manner allowing the garment to drape freely over the front of the wearer. Over the stola, women often wore the , a sort of shawl made of an oblong piece of material that could be worn as a coat, with or without hood, or draped over the left shoulder, under the right arm, and then over the left arm.
Roman girls often wore nothing more than a tunic hanging below the knees or lower, belted at the waist and very simply decorated, most often white. When a girl went out she sometimes wore another tunic, longer than the first, sometimes to the ankles or even the feet.
The basic garment for both sexes, often worn beneath one or more additional layers, was the
or tunic. This was a simple rectangle sewn into a tubular shape and pinned around the shoulders like a Greek . Women might also wear a strophium or breast cloth. Garments to cover the loins, known as
or , might also be worn, especially by soldiers. The
confirm this fashion at the time of the , when a subligaculum might be made of leather. Farm workers wore loincloths.
The dress code of the day was complex and had to reflect one's position accurately in the social order, one's gender, and one's language. Two examples were the
and the . The former was the official tunic of the
and the latter was what
wore. "The importance of official dress, even more than other distinctions, signaled the social status and rank of freeborn Romans and the public roles of magistrates and priests."
Main article:
The variations of clothing worn in Rome were similar to the clothing worn in Greece at the same time, with the exception of the traditionally Roman toga. Until the 2nd century BC, the toga was worn by both sexes and bore no distinction of rank – after that, a woman wearing a toga was marked out as a prostitute. The differentiation between rich and poor was made through the qua the upper-classes wore thin, naturally colored, wool togas while the lower-classes wore coarse material or thin felt. They also differentiated by colors used:
the , with a purple border, worn by male children and magistrates during official ceremonies
or toga palmata, with a gold border, used by generals in their
trabea – toga entirely in purple, worn by statues of deities and emperors
saffron toga – worn by
and , white with a purple band, also worn by consuls on public festivals and
during a transvectio.
laena – worn by the king and the
at sacrifices
crocota – saffron robe worn by women during ceremonies to
Roman fashions underwent very gradual change from the late Republic to the end of the Western empire, 600 years later. In the later empire after 's reforms, clothing worn by soldiers and non-military government bureaucrats became highly decorated, with woven or embellished strips, clavi, and circular roundels, orbiculi, added to tunics and cloaks. These decorative elements usually comprised geometrical patterns and stylised plant motifs, but could include human or animal figures. The use of silk also increased steadily and most courtiers in late antiquity wore elaborate silk robes. Heavy military-style belts were worn by bureaucrats as well as soldiers, revealing the general militarization of late Roman government. Trousers — considered barbarous garments worn by Germans and Persians — achieved only limited popularity in the latter days of the empire, and were regarded by conservatives as a sign of cultural decay. In early medieval Europe, kings and aristocrats dressed like late Roman generals, not like the older toga-clad senatorial tradition.
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Thadeusz, Frank (23 September 1999). .
Pliny Nat.His XI, 75–77
"The project Sea-silk – Rediscovering an Ancient Textile Material." Archaeological Textiles Newsletter, Number 35, Autumn 2002, p. 10.
Maeder, Felicitas, H?nggi, Ambros and Wunderlin, Dominik, Eds. 2004. Bisso marino : Fili d'oro dal fondo del mare – Muschelseide : Goldene F?den vom Meeresgrund. Naturhistoriches Museum and Museum der Kulturen, Basel, Switzerland. (In Italian and German), pp. 68–71 .
. A draft annotated translation by Hill, John E. (2003) from the
– see Section 12 and note 15 plus Appendix B.
. A draft annotated translation by Hill, John E. (2004) of the 3rd century
– see Section 12 of the text and Appendix D.
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