Federation of American Scientists :: Man-Portable Air Defense System (MANPADS) Proliferation
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Man-Portable Air Defense System (MANPADS) Proliferation&
MANPADS RESOURCES:
While addressing the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum, Secretary of State Colin Powell warned that "no threat is more serious to aviation" than man-portable air defense systems (MANPADS). Easy to use and readily available on the black market, MANPADS do indeed pose an imminent and acute threat to military aircraft and civilian airliners.
Since the development of the American Redeye in the late 1950's, hundreds of thousands of MANPADS have been manufactured worldwide. Among the most numerous and best known are the Russian Strela (SA-7 and SA-14), Igla (SA-16 and SA-18) and the U.S.-manufactured FIM-92 Stinger.
Strela-2 (SA-7a): Fielded by the Soviet military in 1968, the SA-7 is among the least sophisticated and most highly proliferated of these weapons. Strela-2s can engage aircraft flying above 50 meters and below 1500 meters, but only when launched from behind the targeted& aircraft. Its infrared (IR) seeker - the device the missile uses to identify its target - homes in on the infrared energy emission of the aircraft. The seeker can be fooled by simple countermeasures such as flares. The missile's small 1.17 kg warhead detonates upon impact with the target.
Strela-2M (SA-7b): The Strela-2M was developed shortly after the first Strela to address several of its shortcomings. Improvements in the guidance system allows the missile to engage transport planes and helicopters head-on, unless the aircraft is flying faster than 540 km/h. The SA-7b can hit targets flying at much higher altitudes (2300 meters), and as far away as 4.2 km.
Strela-3 (SA-14): The SA-14 was accepted into Soviet service in 1974. Improvements to the missile's IR seeker reduce the effectiveness of flares as decoys and allow the user to engage jet aircraft head-on. The SA-14 also features a larger, more lethal warhead (1.8 kg) and a launching mechanism that prevents the user from shooting at targets outside of its range. It can effectively engage targets flying above 30m and below 3000 meters.
Igla-1 (SA-16) and
(SA-18): Igla missiles have warheads that are smaller but more lethal than the Strela's, and their warheads are equipped with both a proximity and an impact fuse. The missile's IR-seeker is specifically designed to distinguish between countermeasures (such as flares) and the targeted aircraft. Both have a maximum range 5.2 km, and are able to engage targets operating between 10 meters and 3500 meters.
: The Stinger is similar in capabilities to the Russian Igla series. More recent versions are equipped with a cooled two-color, infrared-ultraviolet detector that discriminates between flares and the target. Stingers are able to effectively engage targets head-on, from behind and from the side. The missile's maximum range is 4800 meters, which is comparable to the Igla, but it has a much shorter minimum range (200 meters versus the Igla's 800 meter minimum). It is one of the fastest MANPADS missiles, traveling at Mach 2.2.
There are an estimated 500,000 MANPADS in the world today, many thousands of which are thought to be on the black market and therefore accessible to terrorists and other non-state actors.& MANPADS are attractive to terrorists and insurgents because they are:
lethal—the history of MANPADS usage by guerrillas and terrorists underscores the efficacy of these weapons against both civilian and military targets. Estimates of deaths resulting from MANPADS attacks on civilian aircraft range from 500 to 1000.& While most of these deaths were from attacks on smaller aircraft, the Congressional Research Service identified 5 cases in which large civilian turbojet aircraft were targeted. In two of the five cases, the outcome was catastrophic - all people on board were killed.
Insurgent groups seek MANPADS because they are effective against attack helicopters and other aircraft that are used in counter-insurgency operations. During the Soviet occupations of Afghanistan, rebels used U.S.-supplied Stinger missiles to damage or destroy hundreds of aircraft, degrading the threat from Soviet airpower.
highly portable and concealable—MANPADS are around 5 feet long and weigh approximately 30 to 40 pounds.& They fit in a gulf club bag, in the back of a truck, or in the cargo area of a small boat.
inexpensive—Early model MANPADS can be acquired on the
for several thousand dollars. In exceptional circumstances, that price can drop to as low as a manpads pilfered from Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein's massive arms stockpiles were later purchased by the Coalition Provisional Authority for a mere $500 apiece. While later generation manpads cost significantly more (&$30,000), they are still within easy reach of well financed terrorist and criminal groups.
With proper training, MANPADS are relatively simple to operate. All the user has to do is visually acquire the target, and activate the automatic target lock and launch system by pulling a trigger. The missile then uses infrared and/or other seeking capabilities to home in on the target.
In the hands of trained terrorists, MANPADS are formidable threats to unprotected aircraft and most of the thousands of civilian aircraft are unprotected. Furthermore, installing effective countermeasures on these planes would be a time- consuming and costly process. For example, a program to equip 3000 U.S. commercial aircarft with Northrup Grumman's Large Aircraft Infrared Countermeasures (LAIRCM) system would cost around $3 billion and require 6 years to complete. Outfitting civilian planes worldwide would take much longer, and countermeasures installed today may not be effective against next generation MANPADS. Thus, civilian aircraft are likely to be vulnerable to MANPADS attacks for the foreseeable future.
Options for addressing the MANPADS threat can be divided into three general categories: susceptibility reduction, vulnerability reduction, and non-proliferation. Susceptibility reduction involves measures designed to prevent MANPADS from hitting an aircraft. Vulnerability reduction focuses on improving aircraft survivability in the event of a MANPADS hit. Non-proliferation is aimed at preventing the acquisition and use of MANPADS by problematic end-users (e.g. criminal and terrorist organizations). The measures in each category are not mutually exclusive, and none alone will eliminate the threat posed by MANPADS to civilian aircraft. However, a coordinated strategy that incorporates measures from all three categories can reduce the likelihood of a successful attack.
Most discussion on mitigating the MANPADS threat has centered on susceptibility reduction. Included in this category are the following measures:
Improved airport perimeter security—Patrolling the areas around airports could help to detect and deter MANPADS attacks. However, the personnel and equipment necessary to thoroughly patrol the nation's 450 primary airports would be very costly, and the protection provided by these patrols would be imperfect at best. Incoming and departing aircraft fly within the range of many MANPADS for approximately 25 miles, requiring patrols capable of policing a 300-square-mile area surrounding the airport. Nonetheless, more limited patrols could help to deter attacks with shorter-range weapons (such as the SA-7), and at airports surrounded by water or flat, featureless terrain.
Air Traffic Procedures can be altered to reduce the likelihood of a successful MANPADS attack. Replacing gradual approach and descent patterns with spiral descents and steep, rapid climbouts would reduce the amount of time that commercial aircraft fly within range of modern MANPADS. Such changes are not without risks and costs, however. Spiral descents are harrowing for passengers and would require pilot retraining. Quick climbouts reduce the margin of safety in the event of engine failure. Furthermore, even with these changes to flight patterns, the area over which planes would be within range of MANPADS would still be significant.
Technical Countermeasures—There are a variety of protective systems designed to detect and foil MANPADS attacks. These include the following systems:
Infrared Decoy Flares confuse the infra-red seekers of earlier MANPADS models by dispensing materials that give off an IR signature that is similar to, or more intense than, the signature of the aircraft itself. These systems are less effective against newer models of MANPADS, which are better able to differentiate between flares and the aircraft. Many flare systems also pose a fire hazard, precluding their use in heavily populated areas.
Directed Infrared Countermeasures (DIRCMs) direct infrared energy at the missile's seeker, causing it to veer off course and away from the targeted aircraft. Infrared seeking missiles have seekers - devices that are sensitive to IR - that monitor a target's location and trajectory by constantly measuring the infrared energy given off by the target. If the missile is off course (i.e. the target moves to the outer edge of the seeker's field of view), the seeker sends an electronic signal to the missile's guidance system, which uses the missile's fins to change its trajectory. In this way, the missile makes continuous, minor adjustments to its flight path until it intercepts its target.
DIRCMs direct a beam of infrared energy at the missile's seeker. The beam, which generates a target signal that is stronger than that of the targeted aircraft, fools the guidance system into thinking the missile is off course. The guidance system responds by adjusting the missile's flight path. The DIRCM continues to direct the IR beam at the missile until it is so off course that it no longer poses a threat to the aircraft.
Missile warning systems (MWS) alert the targeted aircraft, including the aircraft's IRCMs, of an incoming missile.
Vulnerability reduction involves designing or modifying the aircraft to increase the chance of survival in the event of a successful MANPADS hit, and is accomplished through:
redundancy and separation of flight controls and hydraulic systems,
improved fire and explosion suppression systems,
installation of fuel shut-off valves or self-sealing fuel lines,
hardening of vital areas that are vulnerable to external (MANPADS) threats.
Evolution in MANPADS technologies is making these weapons more lethal and better able to overcome the countermeasures identified above. To ensure that protective systems installed on aircraft today are not rendered obsolete by terrorist acquisition of next generation MANPADS tomorrow, the international community must act decisively to improve stockpile security and strengthen export controls in countries that import and manufacture MANPADs. Below is a list of recent national and international initiatives to control the proliferation of these weapons:
The Wassenaar Arrangement's (WA)
- Through the adoption of the Elements for Export Controls of MANPADS, the WA's 33 participating states agreed to a set of criteria for evaluating potential MANPADS exports. The agreement discourages MANPADS transfers to end-users other than states, and to governments that are unwilling or unable to protect against theft, loss, misuse, or diversion of the MANPADS themselves or related technical information. It also identifies several safeguards that importing governments should implement, including storing the firing mechanism and the missile in separate locations, taking monthly inventories of imported MANPADs, and re-exporting imported systems only after receiving prior consent from the exporting government.
- At their June 2003 meeting in Evian, the Group of 8 major industrialized democracies endorsed the WA's Elements for Export Controls on MANPADS and agreed to take several additional steps. Especially noteworthy is the Group's commitment to:
explore the feasibility of preventing unauthorized use of these weapons through the development of launch control features and
help other countries to collect, secure and d
exchange information on "uncooperative countries and entities."
report on their progress toward implementing these steps in time for the 2004 G8 meeting.
2003 APEC Summit,
- At the October 2003 Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Leaders Meeting, APEC's 21 member states agreed to strengthen national controls on MANPADS production, exports, and stockpile security. Like the G8 agreement, the Declaration also calls on members to ban transfers to sub-national groups, exchange information on national efforts to implement the agreement, and to explore the feasibility of launch control devices.
Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), Forum for Security Co-operation,
- July 2003, the OSCE's Forum for Security Co-operation urged member states to "propose projects for tackling MANPADS-related problems..." by improving stockpile security and boarder controls. To faciliate discussion on these and related topics, the OSCE committed to compiling a matrix of data on MANPADS, which will be gathered from submissions by member states as part of their June 2003 information exchange on small arms. The deadline for preparing the matrix was 10 October 2003.
Written by: Sarah Chankin-Gould and Matt Schroeder, January 2004
at (202) 454-4693
" Associated Press, 11 October 2013.
" World Tribune, 9 August 2013.
" Business Week, 8 August 2013.
" AT WAR Blog, 24 July 2013.
Reuters, 22 July 2013.
The Indian Express, 20 July 2013.
The New York Times, 29 June 2013.
," The Rogue Adventurer Blog, 31 May 2013.
"," Popular Mechanics, 31 May 2013.
"," , 6 May 2013.
"," RT, 30 April 2013.
"," UPI, 26 April 2013.
"," Brown Moses Blog, 6 April 2013.
"," The United States Attorneys Office - Southern District of New York, 5 April 2013.
"," Montreal Gazette, 4 April 2013.
"," Insidedefense. com, 27 March 2013.&
Rogue Adventurer, 22 March 2013.
The Guardian, 8 March 2013.
Popular Mechanics, 6 March 2013.
," New York Times, 2 March 2013.
, The Trigger (Damien Spleeters), 26 February 2013.
, The Trigger (Damien Spleeters), 24 February 2013.
Brown Moses blog, 15 February 2013.The posting features footage of what appears to be Chinese FN-6 MANPADS.
Business Day, 8 February 2013.
New York Times, 8 February 2013.
Reuters, 7 February 2013.& According to the article, Dorner reportedly wrote "Do not deploy airships or gunshisp, SA-7 Manpads will be waiting."
Pravda, 5 February 2013.
Telegraph, 2 February 2013.
Reuters, 2 February 2013. The article claims that MANPADS seized from the boat were "Russian-designed SAM 2 and SAM 3 anti-aircraft missiles."
Yemen Post, 2 February 2013. The article claims that MANPADS seized from the boat were "Iranian-made Sam-2 and Sam-3 anti-aircraft missiles.".
New York Times, 28 January 2013. The article refers to "reports from Yemen" indicating that surface-to-air missiles found on the seized boat were "Iranian-made Misagh-2 surface-to-air missile[s].".
Associated Press, 28 January 2013. Note: the recovered item appears to be a launch tube for a Redeye MANPADS, not a Stinger as widely reported.
Rogue Adventurer, 27 January 2013.
ABC News, 23 January 2013.
Brown Moses Blog, 18 December 2012.
The Scotsman, 29 November 2012.
Washington Post, 28 November 2012.
New York Times At War blog, 27 November 2012.
Foreign Policy, 19 November 2012.
Gaurdian, 16 November 2012.
Brown Moses Blog, 16 November 2012.
New York Times At War Blog, 13 November 2012.
Brown Moses Blog, 13 November 2012.
PBS, 5 November 2012.
RAI NOVOSTI, 24 October 2012.
Foreign Policy, 19 October 2012.
At War Blog (New York Times), 15 October 2012.
ABC News, 13 September 2012.
The Trigger, 1 September 2012.
FAS, 29 August 2012.
NATO, 28 August 2012.
in Small Arms Survey 2012: Moving Targets, released 27 August 2012.
Voice of America, 16 August 2012.
The Hill, 8 August 2012.
At War Blog, 7 August 2012.
Pakistan Defense, 6 August 2012.
Reuters, 1 August 2012.
AAI Test & Training, 30 July 2012.
Foreign Policy, 27 July 2012.
US News and World Report, 27 July 2012.
At War (New York Times), 26 July 2012.
News 24, 22 June 2012.
R&D, 15 June 2012.
The Telegraph, 7 June 2012.
DVIDS, 2 June 2012.
At War Blog (New York Times), 24 May 2012.
Libya Herald, 20 May 2012.
Optics.org, 9 May 2012.
Washington Post, 8 May 2012.
Jerusalem Post, 27 April 2012.
Defense News, 22 April 2012.
Defense News, 12 April 2012.
Bloomberg, 6 April 2012.
Daily Mirror, 26 March 2012.
EADT24, 23 March 2012.
THE JEWISH CHRONICLE ONLINE, 23 March 2012.
Defense Industry Daily, 21 March 2012.
DEBKAfile, 10 March 2012.
USA Today, 5 March 2012.
Somaliareport, 4 March 2012.
Euronews, 29 February 2012.
AFP, 21 February 2012.
Associated Press, 20 February 2012.
Reuters, 20 February 2012.
Bloomberg, 17 February 2012.
Associated Press, 15 February 2012.
AFP, 15 February 2012.
Foreign Policy, 15 February 2012.
Associated Press, 15 February 2012.
Latin American Herald Tribune, 13 February 2012.
Sky News, 2 February 2012.
BAE Systems, 2 February 2012.
US State Department, 2 February 2012.
National Journal, 2 February 2012.
Defense News, 2 February 2012.
Avionics, 1 February 2012.
RT, 24 January 2012.
Artuz Sheva, 17 January 2012.
Washington Post, 15 January 2012.
Reuters, 22 December 2011.
US State Department, 19 December 2011.
InSight, 12 December 2011.
ABC News, 12 December 2011.
US State Department, 11 December 2011.
AFP, 11 December 2011.
Reuters, 8 December 2011.
Rotor & Wing Magazine, 6 December 2011.
Haaretz, 3 December 2011.
Office of Senator Jeanne Shaheen, 1 December 2011. A copy of the
was obtained by the Federation of American Scientists
US State Department, 30 November 2011.
UN News Centre, 28 November 2011.
Magharebia, 23 November 2011.
Army Times, 14 November 2011.
Reuters, 14 November 2011.
Aircraft Survivability, Fall 2011.
UPI, 11 November 2011.
Associated Press, 11 November 2011.
Foreign Policy, 8 November 2011.
US Department of Justice, 2 November 2011.
The Telegraph, 1 November 2011.
The Local, 1 November 2011.
News Release, US Defense Security Cooperation Agency, 31 October 2011.
UK Foreign & Commonwealth Office, 31 October 2011.
Reuters, 31 October 2011.
ABC News, 27 October 2011.
ABC News, 27 October 2011.
Haaretz, 27 October 2011.
Associated Press, 25 October 2011.
Human Rights Watch, 24 October 2011.
Al Arabiya, 21 October 2011.
APA, 21 October 2011.
ABC News, 20 October 2011.
AFP, 19 October 2011.
Courthouse News Service, 19 October 2011.
Courthouse News Service, 18 October 2011.
UPI, 18 October 2011.
UK Foreign & Commonwealth Office, 17 October 2011.
PR Newswire , 17 October 2011.
Associated Press, 14 October 2011.
Washington Post, 13 October 2011.
Washington Post, 12 October 2011.
ABC News, 10 October 2011.
Global and Post, 8 October 2011.
UPI, 4 October 2011.
Matt Schroeder,
Washington DC: Federation of American Scientists, 2013.
Matt Schroeder and Charles Blair,
Federation of American Scientists, 29 August 2012.
Matt Schroeder and Ben King, in Small Arms Survey 2012: Moving Targets, released 27 August 2012. Includes previously unpublished data and photographs of MANPADS in Iraq and Afghanistan.
Matt Schroeder, Nic Marsh and Patrick Herron. " in Small Arms Survey 2011: States of Security, 6 July 2011. Includes in-depth assessment of the international trade in MANPADS.
Matt Schroeder, "Holy Grails: Libya loses control of its MANPADS," Jane's Intelligence Review, May 2011.
Eric Berman, Matt Schroeder, and Jonah Leff, " Research Note No. 1, Small Arms Survey and Federation of American Scientists, January 2011.
Matt Schroeder,
December 2010.
Matt Schroeder,
Volume 3, Issue 3, November 2010.
Matt Schroeder,
Foreign Policy, 28 July 2010.
Matt Schroeder and Matthew Buongiorno, , 21 June 2010.
Matt Schroeder and Matthew Buongiorno, , Vol. 3, Issue, 2, 21 June 2010.
Matt Schroeder and Matthew Buongiorno,
, 2 November 2009.
Matt Schroeder, , FAS Strategic Security Blog, 2 November 2009.
Matt Schroeder, , FAS Strategic Security Blog, 24 August 2009.
Matt Schroeder, , FAS Strategic Security Blog, 13 October 2009.
Matt Schroeder,
FAS Strategic Security Blog, 22 May 2009.
Matt Schroeder,
Missile Watch, 6 April 2009.
Matt Schroeder,
Missile Watch, 8 December 2008.
Matt Schroeder, , , 17 September 2008.
Matt Schroeder, , , 9 July 2008.
, Regional Seminar on MANPADS, Nairobi, Kenya, 2 July 2008.
Matt Schroeder, , Regional Seminar on MANPADS, Nairobi, Kenya, 1 July 2008.
Matt Schroeder, "," FAS Strategic Security Blog, 12 March 2008.
James Bevan & Matt Schroeder, in
(January 2008).
Matt Schroeder, "Rogue Missiles - Tracking MANPADS Proliferation Trends", Jane's Intelligence Review, November 2007.
Matt Schroeder, , FAS Strategic Security Blog, 25 October 2007.
Matt Schroeder, , Arms Control Today, September 2007.
Matt Schroeder,
FAS Strategic Security Blog, 27 July 2007.
Matt Schroeder,
FAS Strategic Security Blog, 19 June 2007.
Matt Schroeder,
in SIPRI Yearbook 2007: Armaments, Disarmament and International Security (Oxford: OxfordUniversityPress, 2007).
Matt Schroeder,
FAS Strategic Security Blog, 24 May 2007.
Matt Schroeder,
FAS Strategic Security Blog, 15 May 2007.
Matt Schroeder,
FAS Strategic Security Blog, 3 May 2007.
Matt Schroeder,
FAS Strategic Security Blog, 9 April 2007.
Matt Schroeder,
FAS Strategic Security Blog, 15 March 2007.
Matt Schroeder,
Presentation to the Organization of American States, 8 March 2007.
Matt Schroeder,
FAS Strategic Security Blog, 7 February 2007.
Matt Schroeder,
FAS Strategic Security Blog, 9 January 2007.
Matt Schroeder, Rachel Stohl & Dan Smith
(Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 2006). Features a four-chapter history of MANPADS proliferation and control efforts.
Matt Schroeder,
FAS Strategic Security Blog, 20 November 2006.
Matt Schroeder,
FAS Strategic Security Blog, 14 November 2006.
Matt Schroeder,
FAS Strategic Security Blog, 05 October 2006.
Matt Schroeder,
FAS Strategic Security Blog, 16 August 2006.
Matt Schroeder,
FAS Strategic Security Blog, 18 July 2006.
Matt Schroeder,
FAS Strategic Security Blog, 11 May 2006.
Matt Schroeder,
FAS Public Interest Report, Volume 57, Number 3, Summer 2004.
Robert Sherman,
FAS Public Interest Report, Volume 56, Number 3, Autumn 2003.
," Google Map maintained by Damien Spleeters, 1 September 2012.
," Human Rights Watch, 5 April 2011.
, Saferworld, posted January 2011.
, Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. One of the most extensive and detailed sources of data on authorized (legal) international transfers of MANPADS and other missiles.
Jack Pledger, Northrup Grumman, October 2010.
"", This American Life, 7 August 2009. Fascinating look at the Hemant Lakhani case.
Nelson Alusala, "", Institute for Security Studies, 26 June 2008.
, Air Line Pilots Association International, July 2008.
David Houska, "", Arms Control Association, October (2007).
James Bevan, "", Disarmament Forum, No. 1 (2007).
James A. Lewis, "", Center for Strategic and International Studies, January 2006.
, BAE Systems, 10 November 2005.
news release, 22 August 2005.
Viktor Litovkin, "", RIA Novosti, 17 February 2005.
, Northrop Grumman news release, 25 January 2005.
James S. Chow, et. al., "", RAND Corporation occasional paper series, January 2005.**
Small Arms Survey, "", , July 2004.
James Bevan, : Presentation to the Geneva Process on Small Arms," Small Arms Survey, 8 September 2004.
Northrop Grumman, April 2004.
Carlo Kopp, "," Australian Aviation, December 2003.
Loren Thompson, "," Lexington Institute, 12 November 2003.
Shane Harris, "," , 11 November 2003.
AOC (the Electronic Warefare & Information Operations Association) Position Statement, February 2003.
, See the following articles:
Michal Fiszer and Jerzy Gruszczynski, "On Arrows and Needles," Journal of Electronic Defense (JED), December 2002.
Michael Puttre, "Facing the Shoulder-Fired Threat," Journal of Electronic Defense (JED), April 2001.
See especially Paul Caffera, "The Vexing Problem of Protecting Airliners from MANPADS," p. 13-16.
, Arms Sales Monitoring Project, October 2009.
Office of Senator Jeanne Shaheen, 1 December 2011. A copy of the
was obtained by the Federation of American Scientists
Introduced by Rep. Israel, 4 May 2009.
Rep. Brad Sherman and Rep. Edward Royce, 8 January 2009 (posted 21 January 2009).
," Congressional Research Service, updated 8 August 2008. Includes a brief overview of efforts to retrieve missing Stinger missiles in Afghanistan (see pp. 53-54).
," Congressional Research Service, 1 February 2008. Budget data on DHS' Counter-MANPADS program is listed on page 43.
, 10 May 2007.
, December 2006.
, hearing transcript, House International Relations Committee, Subcommittee on International Terrorism and Nonproliferation, 30 March 2006.
from Senator Barbara Boxer to DHS Secretary Michael Chertoff, 28 March 2006.
Department of Homeland Security Appropriations Act FY2006
, 14 July 2005
, 15 June 2005.&
, Congressman Joe Wilson,18 October 2005.
Rep. Don Young, Chairman of the House Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure, 15 June 2005.
Department of Homeland Security Authorization Act FY2006
Rep. Mica's
Rep. Israel's
Emergency Supplemental Appropriations Act, 2005.
is a sense of the Senate that $32 million should be made available for the Defense Department's MANPADS buyback program.
. Includes the , which authorizes an "accelerated global program to secure, remove, or eliminate stocks of MANPADS, other conventional weapons, and tactical missile systems..."
30 August 2005
," Congressional Research Service, updated 16 February 2006.
, 12 March 2004.
," Congressional Research Service, 24 January 2005. Includes a brief discussion of the threat posed by MANPADS
Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 (PL 108-458, 17 December 2004. See , "Man-portable Air Defense Systems" and , "Missile Systems Designed to Destroy Aircraft."
of Daniel J. Bryant, Assistant Attorny General, on S. 2679 - The "Tools to Fight Terrorism Act of 2004". Note: the MANPADS section of this act was folded into PL 108-458.
, Senate Foreign Relations Committee Nominations Hearing,29 September 2004. Contains brief summary of U.S. MANPADS stockpile destruction program inAlbania.
(HR 4818).
provides that $10 million should be made available to reduce the threat of MANPADS acquisition by terrorists or state sponsors of terrorism.
(HR 4567).
requires a report on U.S. efforts to protect commercial aircraft from MANPADS.
during Senate consideration of DHS Appropriations bill,23 July 2004.
, CEO, Air Transport Association, before the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation, 22 June 2004.
(S 2664), 15 July 2004.
, 22 June 2004.&
(HR 4056), 30 March 2004.
, Deputy Administrator of the Transportation Security Administration, before the Aviation Subcommittee of the House Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure, 12 February 2004.
, Transportation Security Administration (TSA) officials testify to Senate, 5 November 2003.
House Transportation Committee's Aviation Subcommittee, 16 October 2003.
," Congressional Research Service, 3 November 2003.
(P.L. 108-11), 16 April 2003. Authorizes the Department of Homeland Security's two-phase Systems Development and Demonstration (SD&D) program for antimissile devices for commercial aircraft.
Legislation on MANPADS (i.e. Commercial Airline Missile Defense Act) can be found on the ASMP
page. For more information on Congressional efforts to address the MANPADS threat, visit Congressman Steven Israel's
issues page.
News Release, US Defense Security Cooperation Agency, 31 October 2011.
Aircraft Survivability, Fall 2011.
Maxwell Paper No. 45, Air War College, August 2009.
MNF-Iraq, 29 June 2009.
, 1 April 2009. Includes a brief discussion of the threat posed by light weapons, including SA-7s, to military aircraft in Afghanistan.
, 30 September 2007. Includes two brief references to multiple Iranian-produced Misagh MANPADS found in Iraq.
, Press Release, Multi-National Force-Iraq, 31 August 2007.
American Forces Press Service, 13 February 2007.
Powerpoint presentation, 11 February 2007.
Defense Security Cooperation Agency Policy Memorandum 05-10,29 March 2005.
Defense Department News Transcript, 21 March 2005. Secretary Rumsfeld answers questions about U.S. counter-MANPADS policy vis-a-visNicaragua.
Defense Department News Transcript, 9 February 2005. Brief discussion of possible causes (including MANPADS) of the January 30th C-130 crash inIraq. Italics added.
Defense Department News Transcript, 11 January 2005. Topics of discussion included Russian MANPADS proliferation and US/Russian MANPADS information exchange agreement.
Defense Department News Transcript, 12 November 2004. Includes discussion of Nicargua's MANPADS destruction program.
," Press Release, Defense Security Cooperation Agency, 4 June 2004.
, DSCA Policy Memorandum 04-11, 2 April 2004. Includes detailed description of end-use monitoring requirements for exported Stingers.
, Talon, Task Force Eagle, 5 March 2004, p. 4.
, Director of the Defense Security Cooperation Agency, before the House Committee on Government Reform, 9 March 2004.
, Aerospace Vehicle Survivability Facility.
Chapter 8.3.3 of the DoD Security Assistance Management Manual (SAMM) of 3 October 2003, pp. 275-277. See also the
in Chapter 5, Table 5, which lists the storage, handling and retransfer requirements that must be included as part of any U.S. MANPADS sale/transfer to foreign governments.
, Research and Development Descriptive Summaries, Fiscal Year 2004.
, American Forces Press Service, 15 October 2003.
, American Forces Press Service, 16 December 2002.
, American Forces Press Service, 9 August 2002.
Mary T. Cagle, , Army Missile Command, 23 May 1974. Note: this document is 7.8 mb.
Chronological Summary of Significant Events Concerning the Laotian Crisis, Fourth Installment, Historical Division, Joint Secretariat, Joint Chiefs of Staff, 25 June 1962.
The excerpt contains a brief reference to a recommendation by the CINCPAC (Commander and Chief, Pacific Command) to the Joint Chiefs of Staff to consider providing FIM-43 Redeye missiles to Laotian armed groups. The FAS has filed a Freedom of Information Act request for the full CINCPAC recommendation and related documents. Special thanks to Joe Trevithick for calling our attention to the reference and for providing us with a copy of the report.
DTRA provides technical support to the
which have helped to destroy approximately 10,000 surplus, obsolete or inadequately secured MANPADS.
See also DTRA's
Fact Sheets.
, GAO-05-156R, 28 January 2005. Summarizes problems with State Department reporting on Stinger missile exports.
U.S. Government Accountability Office, GAO-05-136, December 2004.
U.S. General Accounting Office, GAO-04-728, June 2004.
U.S. General Accounting Office, GAO-04-519, May 2004.
U.S. General Accounting Office, GAO-04-341R, 30 January 2004.
, United States General Accounting Office, GAO/NSIAD-94-100, September 1994.
U.S. General Accounting Office, GAO/C-MASAD-83-10, 26 January 1983.
, Fiscal Year 2008 Report to Congress, Science and Technology Directorate, Department of Homeland Security, 30 March 2010. Obtained by the Federation of American Scientists via FOIA, June 2010.
, News Release, Immigration and Customs Enforcement, 30 October 2008.
, Presentation, S & T Stakeholders Conference, 2-5 June 2008.
, Posted on Jul 30, 2007
Posted on Jul 31, 2007
Posted on Aug 01, 2007
Department of Homeland Security Appropriations Bill, 2008 (HR 2638),
Report language on MANPADS: The Committee remains supportive of development activities that could protect commercial aircraft against portable, shoulder-launched missiles. To date, $270,000,000 has been appropriated for these activities. In fiscal year 2008, the Committee recommends a total of $11,500,000 to continue these efforts: $10,000,000 within the innovation appropriation and $1,500,000 within the explosives appropriation.
Press Release, Immigration and Customs Enforcement, 5 April 2007.
Broad Agency Announcement (BAA), HSARPA BAA07-04, 27 March 2007.
Detlof von Winterfeldt, DHS University Centers of Excellence Summit, 16 March 2007.
Press Release, Department of Homeland Security, 20 October 2006.
Congressional Research Service, updated 5 July 2006. See pp. 69-71.
Senate Committee on Appropriations, 29 June 2006.
Avionics Magazine, 1 May 2006.
Report to Congress in Response to the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 (Public Law 108-458), December 2005.
(HR 230 RFS)
(HR 1817 RFS)
, Congressional Research Service, 14 April 2005. Contains budget data on DHS's counter MANPADS program for FY2004 - FY2006. Particularly noteworthy is the gap between funds appropriated in FY2004 ($60 million) and expenditures ($17 million). See pp. 48 & 49.
, Office of the Press Secretary, Department of Homeland Security, 7 February 2005.
, Office of the Press Secretary, Department of Homeland Security, 7 February 2005.
, Press Release, Office of the Press Secretary, Department of Homeland Security, 25 August 2004.
, News Release, 25 August 2004.
, News Release, 25 August 2004.
, Fact Sheet, Department of Homeland Security, 25 August 2004.
, Fact Sheet, Office of the Press Secretary, Department of Homeland Security, 6 January 2004. &
, Office of the Press Secretary, Department of Homeland Security 18 September 2003.
, Admiral James Loy, the administrator of the TSA, 26 August 2003.
DHS Science and Technology Division, Counter-MAN Portable Air Defense Systems (MANPADS) Special Program Office.
," Department of Justice, 31 May 2011.
," The United States Attorneys Office - Southern District of New York , 5 April 2013.
," United States Attorney's Office, Central District of California, 9 May 2011.
," US Drug Enforcement Administration, 2 May 2011.
," United States District Court, District of Arizona, 11 January 2011 (Unsealed March 2011).
," US Department of Justice, 23 November 2009.
," United States District Court, Southern District of New York.
," United States District Court, Southern District of New York, 19 August 2009.
," United States Attorney, Southern District of New York, 17 February 2010.
, United States District Court, Southern District of New York, March 2008.
, FAS Strategic Security Blog, 13 October 2009.
, US Department of Justice, 2 November 2011.
, United States District Court, Southern District of New York, June 2007.
, Press Release, Drug Enforcement Administration, 20 November 2008.
Department of Justice, Eastern District of New York, 21 August 2006.
Press Release, U.S.Attorney's Office, Southern District of Texas, Department of Justice, 1 December 2005.
Press Release, Department of Justice, 9 November 2005.
US State Department, 2 February 2012.
US State Department, 19 December 2011.
US State Department, 30 November 2011.
US Department of State, 26 August 2011.
" State Department, updated 27 July 2011.
," State Department, 15 March 2011.
" State Department, 14 February 2011.
US State Department, July 2010. Brief reference to US counter-MANPADS efforts on pages 6-7, 10 and 35.
, State Department, 9 July 2010. Obtained by the Federation of American Scientists via FOIA, June 2010.
," Bureau of Political-Military Affairs, 23 November 2009.
, Office of Weapons Removal and Abatement, US State Department, 23 July 2009.
, 2009 edition, State Department, 8 July 2009. Features a slightly updated version of the one-page brief, "The Menace of MANPADS," updated figures on stockpile security and manpads destruction efforts, and country-specific information on manpads destruction efforts.
Bureau of Political-military Affairs, 1 July 2009.
", US Embassy in Lebanon, 13 November 2008.
", State Department, 31 July 2008.
" , Remarks by Lincoln Bloomfield, Special Envoy for MANPADS Threat Reduction, at the Regional Seminar on MANPADS Hosted by the Regional Centre on Small Arms (RECSA), Nairobi, Kenya 2 July 2008.
" ," State Department, 26 June 2008.
", Bureau of Political-Military Affairs, June 2008. Good summary of conventional weapons destruction programs, including MANPADS destruction. Also contains a one-page special report,
"," State Department Media Note, 24 January 2008.
"," State Department Fact Sheet, 24 January 2008.
, Christian Science Monitor, 21 January 2008.
Presentation, October 2007
State Department (required by the Conference Report accompanying the FY06 Foreign Operations Appropriations Act), obtained via the Freedom of Information Act on 12 July 2007.
State Department Media Note, 5 July 2007.
Counter Terrorism Task Force, Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Forum, February 2007.
State Magazine, November 2006 (posted April 2007).
, Department of State press release, 21 February 2007. Mentions Ukraine's decision to destroy 2000 more of its MANPADS.
, 11 October 2006. Brief discussion of MANPADS destruction assistance programs.
Press Release, State Department, 21 September 2006.
Washington File, State Department, 22 April 2006.
Washington File, State Department, 30 March 2006.
Washington File, State Department, 9 February 2006.
Washington File, State Department, 3 October 2005.
State Department Fact Sheet, 20 September 2005.
State Department Press Briefing, 24 June 2005.
State Department Briefing,Washington File, 24 June 2005.
submitted to the APEC Counter Terrorism Task Force, 26-27 May 2005.
State Department Briefing, Washington File, 21 March 2005.
Congressional Budget Justification for FY06 Foreign Operations, March 2005.
Washington File, 25 February 2005.
State Department Fact Sheet, 24 February 2005.
Washington File, 22 February 2005.
Washington File, 18 February 2005.
Washington File, 14 February 2005. Briefly mentions U.S. plans to help destroy surplus MANPADS (italics added).
Eric Green, Washington File, 28 January 2005.
Daily Press Briefing, Bureau of Public Affairs, 27 January 2005.
(State Department webpage)
Eric Green, Washington File, 11 August 2004.
, Statement by James Cox to OSCE Permanent Council, 8 July 2004.
Eric Green, WashingtonFile,6 May 2004.
, Bureau of Resource Management, December 2003.
Sarajevo,Bosnia and Herzegovina, 10 November 2003.
transcript of remarks by Secretary of State Colin Powell, Managua, Nicaragua, 3 November 2003. Includes discussion of Nicaragua's MANPADS, which the US has offered to help destroy.
transcript of remarks by Secretary of State Colin Powell,Washington, DC, 13 August 2003.
WRA coordinates programs that help foreign governments to destroy surplus or obsolete small arms and light weapons. Through these programs, the State Department has destroyed 10,500 MANPADS, many of which were vulnerable to theft or diversion.
"," Chicago Tribune, 9 September 2008.& Brief mention of a claim by Afghan tribal leader Bashir Noorzai that he turned in 400 "anti-aircraft missiles" to US troops in January 2002.&
"," Afghan War Rug Blog, 19 February 2008.
Drug Enforcement Agency, 8 June 2007.
UK Ministry of Defense, April 2007.
15 March 2005. Detailed account of attempts by traffickers to illegally sell small arms and light weapons, including MANPADS, in the United States.
Donald Stevens, et al.,
RAND, 2004.
," Air Transport Association of America, updated 21 September 2004.
NATO, 10 September 2004.
Captain Stephen Luckey,
Air Line Pilots Association, 22 June 2004.
," Air Line Pilots Association, 6 April 2004.
Capt. Besnik Cukali,
SFOR (Bosnia), 8 December 2003.
. Summarizes Justice Department recommendation that guideline penalties for MANPADS-related offenses be increased.
International Aircraft Systems, Fire Protection Working Group Workshop, NASA, 5 November 2003.
Federal Bureau of Investigation, 13 August 2003.
Coalition Provisional Authority, 12 August 2003.
Includes a reference to the CPA's request for an additional $1 million for its MANPADS Weapons Buyback Program.
Air Transport Association.
Footage of loose MANPADS in Syria:
30 May 2013.& Armed group with four different MANPADS: SA-7 or variant, SA-16 or variant, FN-6 and (apparent) SA-24.
13 May 2013.& Apparent downing of a helicopter with a MANPADS equipped with what appears to be an improvised battery.
, 6 April 2013.
, 22 March 2013.& Launch tubes in crates.
, 22 March 2013. Footage of SA-7bs or foreign variants with yellow battery units.
, 16 March 2013. Footage of FN-6.
, 25 February 2013. Apparent FN-6 attack on helioopter.
, 22 February 2013. SA-24 missile with gripstock.
, 15 February 2013.
, 14 February 2013.
, 11 February 2013.Footage of what appears to be a Chinese FN-6
, 12 January 2013.
, 1 January 2013.
, 1 January 2013.
, 9 December 2012. SA-24 "MAKET" launch tubes.
, 29 November 2012.
, 28 November 2012.
, 27 November 2012. Syrian rebel explains how to use SA-7 MANPADS.
, 27 November 2012. Attack on helicopter.
, 16 November 2012.
, 27 October 2011.
, Military, Defense and Technology, 10 September 2011.
, ABC News, 7 September 2011.
, Youtube, 25 July 2011. Note that the system on display in the video is a Strelets armed with SA-24 missiles, not Strela (SA-7 or SA-14) missiles as claimed in the title of the video.
, Military Channel.
, posted on YouTube, April 2009.
, posted on YouTube, April 2009.
presentation by Chris Hughes, United Kingdom Ministry of Defense, at the one-day OAS conference entitled "Effective Strategies to Migitate the Threat Posed by the use of Man-portable Air Defense Systems (MANPADS) by non-State actors, 8 March 2007. Good basic overview of MANPADS technology and systems. Presentation begins after lengthy introduction in Spanish.
, Reuters, 22 November 2003.
Iraq Ordnance Identification Guide, , Naval Explosive Ordnance Disposal Technology Division
, Defense Intelligence Agency, undated (2002).
2006 APEC Ministerial Meeting, , Ha Noi, Vietnam, 15-16 November 2006. [note: bold added]
2005 APEC Ministerial Meeting, , Busan, Republic of Korea, 15-16 November 2005. [note: bold added]
2005 APEC Ministerial Meeting, , Busan, Republic of Korea, 15-16 November 2005.
2004 APEC Ministerial Meeting, , Santiago, Chile, 17-18 November 2004.
, 2004/AMM/035, November 2004.
White House Fact Sheet:
20 November 2004.
, 4th APEC Transportation Ministerial Meeting, 27-29 July 2004.
, 4th APEC Transportation Ministerial Meeting, 31 July 2004.
Bangkok, Thailand, 21 October 2003.
White House Fact Sheet, 21 October 2003.
, Kuala Lumpur, 28 July 2006.
"," State Department Fact Sheet,8 June 2005.
"," White House Press Release, 9 June 2004.
"Enhance Transport Security and Control of Man Portable Air Defense Systems (MANPADS): A G8 Action Plan," State Department Fact Sheet, Evian, 2 June 2003.
White House fact sheet on the G8 action plan, 2 June 2003.
, G8 Summit (Sea Island, Georgia), June 2004. &
," Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, June 2008.
," Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, 2008.
, Hon. Alexander Downer, Minister of Foreign Affairs, Speech to Seminar at the Millennium Hotel, New York City, 18 January 2007.
"," Statement by Hon. Caroline Millar, Ambassador and Permanent Representative of Australia to the United Nations, Australian Permanent Mission and Consulate-General, Geneva, Switzerland, 24 August 2006.
, Minister of Foreign Affairs, 6 December 2005.
, 3 July 2007.
, 14 September 2007.
by Dominique R. Antonini, Chief, Aviation Security Section, International Civil Aviation Organization, at the Follow-up Meeting to the United Nations Counter-Terrorism Committee Special Meeting, 11-12 March 2004.
, 5-6 March 2004.
, ICAO resolution A35-11
, Rapporteur's Report, Organization of American States, 26 March 2007.
, Press Release, Organization of American States, 8 March 2007.
Organization of American States, AG/RES. 2145, 7 June 2005.
, Presentation by the Committee on Hemispheric Security to the Permanent Council of the Organization of American States, 25 May 2005.
(one-day conference), Organization of American States, 8 March
February 2005.
, Inter-American Committee Against Terrorism (CICTE), 16-18 February 2005.
," OSCE Magazine,December 2009.
, OSCE, 12 June 2009.
, 26 May 2008.
FSC.AIAM/31/07/Corr.1, 28 March 2007.
, Second day of the Twelfth Meeting, 29 March 2006.
, Second day of the Twelfth Meeting, 7 December 2004.
, 423rd Plenary Meeting, 26 May 2004.
, OSCE Magazine, March 2004.
, Press Release, 23 January 2004.
, Second day of the Eleventh Meeting, 2 December 2003.
, 397th Plenary Meeting, 23 July 2003.
, Annual Security Review Conference, 25-26 June 2003.
, Follow-up Meeting to the United Nations Counter-Terrorism Committee (CTC) Special Meeting on 6 March 2003
Hosted by the OSCE in co-operation with the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), 11 March 2004.
NATO, 28 August 2012.
," Press Release, 12-13 June 2007.
, June 2007.
," 11-12 March 2004.
, Nairobi, Kenya, 1-2 July 2008.
" , Special Envoy for MANPADS Threat Reduction, 2 July 2008.
Matt Schroeder,
, 2 July 2008.
Matt Schroeder, , 1 July 2008.
, Wassenaar Arrangement, as amended in December 2007.
, Wassenaar Arrangement, December 2003.
Policy Text, State Department's International Information Programs, 16 December 2003.
, 1 December 2000.
Boese, Wade, , Arms Control Today, January/February 2001.
. S/ February 2013.
(2011). S/ February 2012.
United Nations Security Council, resolution ), 2 December 2011.
United Nations Security Council, S/RES/2017, 31 October 2011.
United Nations Security Council, S/ July 2011 (released 30 July 2011). Detailed case study on MANPADS proliferation and usage on pp. 241-244.
UN Security Council, S/, May 2010 (released November 2010). See p. 26 for a brief mention of MANPADS seized by Thai authorities from a North Korean shipment in December 2009.
Eritrea is the reported source of many of the MANPADS acquired by militants in Somalia. See also .
, Federation of American Scientists, 2 November 2009.
, July 2008 (clearing house for information on SA/LW control efforts, including MANPADS).
, UN Security Council, S/, April 2008 (see pp. 24-25).
, United Nations General Assembly, First Committee, 62nd session, A/C.1/62/L.38/Rev.1, 29 October 2007.
, UN Security Council, S/, July 2007.
, UN Security Council, S/, November 2006. Includes several references to manpads transfers to the non-state actors in Somalia.
, United Nations General Assembly, First Committee, 60th session, A/RES/60/77, 11 January 2006.
, Unite Nations Security Council, S/ February 2005. See pages 33-35.
, United Nations General Assembly, First Committee, 59th session, A/C.1/59/L.49/Rev.2*, 1 November 2004.
, UN Security Council, S/, November 2003. See especially pp. 28-30.
European Defense Agency (undated).
: Request for the report titled Counter-MANPADS Program results Fiscal Year 2008 Report to Congress, dated 30 March 2010.
, Bloomberg, 2 July 2010.
: Request for all records, reports, transcripts, minutes, appendixes, working papers, drafts, studies, other documents, or photographs of the "surface-to-air missile launcher and platform" seized by Multi-National Division - North from one of nine weapons caches discovered north of Nuqdadiyah during Operation Iron Reaper, conducted 8-11 Dec 07.
: "request for documents and photos pertaining to "the alleged acquisition of Chinese-made HN-5 surface-to-air missiles"
Report to Congress in Response to the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 (Public Law 108-458), Department of Homeland Security, December 2005.
FAS Strategic Security Blog, 25 October 2007.
: "request for "a copy of the complete photograph of the Misagh-1 MANPADS missile allegedly recovered near Baghdad International Airport in 2004."
FOIA No. : "Report on Small Arms Programs," State Department (required by the Conference Report accompanying the FY06 Foreign Operations Appropriations Act).
: "request for "documents or photographs of the "22 surface-to-air missiles" seized by Task Force Baghdad on January 2006."
FAS Strategic Security Blog, 18 May 2007.
containing information on the acquisition and/or use of MANPADS by 10 Non-state groups, filed 2 February 2005.
: documents distributed at "MANPADS: The Worldwide Threat to Aviation Conference," November 3-4, 2004.
, 8 November 2004.
by Dr. Richard Amos, Deputy Commander, Aviation & Missile Life Cycle Management Command, 4 November 2004.
by Major Scott Guilbeault, AF/XORE, 4 November 2004.
: "documents pertaining to plans by "Bin Ladin cells in [Saudi Arabia]...to attack U.S. forces with shoulder-fired missiles" in the spring of 1998.
FOIA No. F-: records pertaining to "the foiled January 1976 attempt by terrorists to shoot down an El Al passenger plane near Nairobi, Kenya."
Directorate of Intelligence, Central Intelligence Agency, July 1977.
Department of State, July 1977, received 28 November 2007.
: records on "a foiled attempt by Arab terrorists to shoot down an Israeli El Al plane near Rome's Fiumcino airport."
: "a copy of the June 1998 document entitled "Bin Ladin Threatening to Attack US Aircraft."
Beveridge, Dirk, "APEC Nations Agree to Limit Missile Sales," Associated Press, 18 October 2003.
For a technical description of Russian Strela and Igla missiles see Michel Fiszer and Jerzy Gruszczynski, "On Arrows and Needles," Journal of Electronic Defense (JED), December 2002, available at
Fiszer, Michal, "On Arrows and Needles," p. 2-3.
David A. Kuhn, "Mombassa attack highlights increasing MANPADS threat," Jane's Intelligence Review, February 2003, p. 29.& Fiszer, Michal, "On Arrows and Needles," p. 3.
Fiszer, "On Arrows and Needles," p. 3.
Fiszer, "On Arrows and Needles," p. 4-5 and Kuhn, "Mombassa attack highlights increasing MANPADS threat," p. 29
U.S. Marine Corps, ; Jane's Land-Based Air Defense, 13 October 2000; and David A. Kuhn, "Mombassa attack highlights increasing MANPADS threat," Jane's Intelligence Review, February 2003, p. 28.
Kuhn, "Mombassa attack highlights increasing MANPADS threat," p. 28.
See Paul J. Caffera, "Hand-held Terror," Washington Post, 5 November 2001, available at
and Caffera, "Israel has anti-missile plan for jets: Commercial airliners to get protection against some shoulder-fired rockets," San Francisco Chronicle, 29 August 2003, available at . For an example of the training, skills and information needed to effectively employ modern MANPADS, see
of MANPADS Platoon, Section and Team Operations, Field Manual No. 44-46, Department of the Army.
Bolkcom, Christopher and Bartholomew Elias, "Homeland Security: Protecting Airliners from Terrorist Missiles," Congressional Research Service Report for Congress, Updated, 3 November 2003, p. 7, available at
Kuperman, Alan J., "The Stinger Missile and U.S. Intervention in Afghanistan," Political Science Quarterly, Volume 114, Number 2, 1999, p. 246.
Thompson, Loren B., "MANPADS: Scale & Nature of the Threat," Lexington Institute, 12 November 2003, available at
See Ken Silverstein and Judy Pasternak, "A Market in Missiles for Terror," Los Angeles Times, 6 March 2003 and Thomas Hunter, "The proliferation of MANPADS," Jane's Intelligence Review, September 2001, p. 42.
Kuhn, "Mombasa attack highlights increasing MANPADS threat," p. 27.& For an example of the training, skills and information needed to effectively use modern MANPADS, see
of MANPADS Platoon, Section and Team Operations, Field Manual No. 44-46, Department of the Army.
, Aviation Subcommittee, 20 March 2003.
Patrolling the area around airports set in major metropolitan areas would be an especially daunting task. For example, as Professor Loren Thompson points out, protecting aircraft flying into and out of the airports servicing New York Citywould require the patrolling of 1000 square miles containing 10 million people. See Sherman, Robert, "The Real Terrorist Missile Threat, and What Can be Done About It," FAS Public Interest Report, Volume 56, Number 3, Autumn 2003; Caffera, Paul J., "The Vexing Problem of Protecting Airliners from MANPADS," Aircraft Survivability, Summer 1999, p. 14; and Thompson, "MANPADS: Scale & Nature of the Threat"
See Bolkom, "Homeland Security: Protecting Airliners from Terrorist Missiles," p. 13-14.
In addition to the Bolkcom, Caffera, and Puttré articles cited in this section, an interesting discussion on countermeasures can be found in David Learmont, et al., "Can countermeasures work?" Flight International, 10 December 2002.
Bolkcom, "Homeland Security: Protecting Airliners from Terrorist Missiles," p. 11.
For information on the importance and problems associated with MWS see Puttré, "Facing the Shoulder-Fired Threat." p. 4-6.
Caffera, Paul J., "The Vexing Problem of Protecting Airliners from MANPADS," p. 16 and Howard Fleisher, "Commercial Aircraft Vulnerability Assessment" Aircraft Survivability, Fall 2002, p. 24, available at . &For further discussion of vulnerability reduction also see Anthony Lizza and Greg Czarnecki, "Low Vulnerability Technologies: Building a Balanced Approach" and Jaime Childress, Robert Tomaine and Michael Meyers, "MANPADS Survivability Depends on Aircraft Design and Type" Aircraft Survivability, Summer 1999,
The Wassenaar Arrangement is a grouping of 33 conventional arms exporting countries that set standards for exports of conventional weapons and dual-use goods. Its members include several manufacturers and/or exporters of MANPADS, including Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France,Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal,Republic of Korea, Romania, Russian Federation, Slovakia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, Ukraine, United Kingdomand United States. For more information see .