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is a regal official who runs a country, colony, city or province
in the name of and as
of the monarch. The term derives from the Latin prefix vice-, meaning "in the place of" and the French word roi, meaning "king". A viceroy's province or larger
may be called a viceroyalty. The
form is viceregal, less often viceroyal. The term vicereine is sometimes used to indicate a female viceroy , although viceroy can serve as a gender-neutral term. Vicereine is more commonly used to indicate a viceroy's wife.
The title was originally used by the , where beginning in the 14th century it referred to the governors of
and . After the unification, at the end of the 15th century, later kings of
came to appoint numerous viceroys to rule over various parts of the increasingly vast
in Europe, the Americas, and overseas elsewhere.
In Europe, until the 18th century the Habsburg crown appointed viceroys of , , , , , , , and . With the ascension of the
to the Spanish throne, the historic Aragonese viceroyalties were replaced by new . At the end of , the Spanish Monarchy was shorn of its Italian possessions. These Italian territories, however, continued to have viceroys under their new
Sardinia would have a viceroy until 1848.
The Americas were incorporated into the . With the , the institution of viceroys was adapted to govern the highly populated and wealthy regions of the north overseas:
(Mexico and Philippines) and the south overseas:
and South America. The viceroys of these two areas had oversight over the other provinces, with most of the North American, Central American,
areas supervised by the viceroy in
and the South American ones by the viceroy in , (with the exception of most of today's , which was overseen by the high court, or
on the island of Hispaniola for most of the colonial period). These large administrative territories became known as Viceroyalties (Spanish term: Virreinatos). There were only two
viceroyalties until the 18th century, when the new
established two additional viceroyalties to promote economic growth and new settlements on South America. New viceroyalties were created for
in 1717 (capital, ) and
in 1776 (capital, ).
The viceroyalties of the Spanish Americas and the Spanish East Indies were subdivided into smaller, autonomous units, the
( with the authority to judge), and the
(military districts), which in most cases became the bases for the independent countries of modern . These units gathered the local provinces which could be governed by either a crown official, a
(sometimes alcalde mayor) or by a
or town council. Audiencias primarily functioned as superior judicial tribunals, but unlike their European counterparts, the New World audiencias were granted by law both administrative and legislative powers. Captaincies General were primarily military districts set up in areas with a risk of foreign or
attack, but the captains general were usually given political powers over the provinces under their command. Because the long distances to the viceregal capital would hamper effective communication, both audiencias and captains general were authorized to communicate directly with the crown through the . The Bourbon Reforms introduced the new office of the , which was appointed directly by the crown and had broad fiscal and administrative powers in political and military issues.
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Further information:
, first viceroy of
The title of Viceroy being awarded to members of the nobility, Viceroys,
and Governing Commissions were many times interleaved until the last Viceroy , in 1896. From 1505 to 1896  – the name "India" and the official name "Estado da India" (State of India) including all Portuguese possessions in the Indian Ocean, from southern Africa to Southeast Asia and Australasia, until 1752- was governed either by a Viceroy (Portuguese Vice-Rei) or Governor from its headquarters, in
since 1510. The government started six years after the discovery of sea route to India by , in 1505, under first Viceroy
(b.1450–d.1510). Initially, King
tried a power distribution with three governors in different areas of jurisdiction: a government covering the area and possessions in East Africa,
and , overseeing up
(Gujarat); a second one ruling the possessions in
(Hindustan) and , and a third one from
to the Far East. However the post was centered by governor
(), who became plenipotentiary, and remained so. The duration in office was usually three years, possibly longer, given the power represented: of the thirty-four governors of India in the 16th century, only six had longer mandates.
During some periods of the , between 1580 and 1640, the , who was also , appointed , as the king had multiple realms throughout Europe and delegated his powers to various viceroys.
Further information:
After the end of the
in 1640, the governors of
that were members of the Portuguese high nobility started to use the title of Viceroy. Brazil became a permanent
in 1763, when the capital of the
(Estado do Brasil) was transferred from
Following the adoption of the Act that transferred the government of India from the East India Company to the Crown in 1858, the Governor-General as representing the Crown became known as the Viceroy. The designation 'Viceroy', although it was most frequently used in ordinary parlance, had no statutory authority, and was never employed by Parliament. Although the Proclamation of 1858 announcing the assumption of the government of India by the Crown referred to
as "first Viceroy and Governor-General", none of the Warrants appointing his successors referred to them as 'viceroys', and the title, which was frequently used in warrants dealing with precedence and in public notifications, was basically one of ceremony used in connection with the state and social functions of the sovereign's representative. The Governor-General continued to be the sole representative of the Crown, and the Government of India continued to be vested in the Governor-General-in-Council.
The viceroys reported directly to the
in London and were advised by the . They were largely unencumbered in the exercise of their authority and were among the most powerful men on earth in the
eras, ruling over an entire
and with a large military force at their disposal in the form of the . Under the terms of the , viceroys shared some limited aspects of their authority with the , one of the first steps of reform as India progressed towards
under the , independence as a
in 1947, and ultimately the declaration of a republic in 1949.
Alongside the , the viceroy was the public face of the British presence in India, attending to many ceremonial functions as well as political affairs. As the representative of the , who were also the kings and queens of the , the viceroy served as the grand master of the two principal
of British India: the
, last viceroy of India
During the office's history, the Governors-General of India were based in two cities:
during the 19th century and New Delhi during the 20th century. Additionally, whilst Calcutta was the capital of British India, the viceroys spent the summer months at . The two historic residences of the viceroys still stand: the
in New Delhi and
in Calcutta. They are used today as the official residences of the
and the , respectively. The portraits of the Governors-General still hang in a room on the ground floor of the Presidential Palace, one of the last vestiges of both the viceroys and the British Raj.
Notable Governors-General of India include , , , , , and . Lord Mountbatten served as the last Viceroy of British India, but continued on as the first Governor-General of the .
Further information:
were often referred to as "Viceroy" after 1700 until 1922, even though the
had been merged in 1801 into the .
The term has also been occasionally applied to the
of the .[] In law, the , the
of the Canadian provinces and the
of the Australian states are not viceroys, although the term is sometimes used.[]
Further information:
Namestnik (: наме?стник, Russian pronunciation: ) was an office position in the history of the . It can be translated as "viceroy", "deputy", "lieutenant" (the broader sense of that word) or literally in place . The term has two periods of usage, with different meanings. Namestnik replaced the obsolete position of
In the 12th–16th centuries, namestniks (more correctly
namestniks, or "knyaz deputies") were in charge of local administration. In particular, they ruled .
In the 18th–20th centuries, a namestnik was a person in charge of namestnichestvo, with
powers. The latter has traditionally been translated as
and "namestnik" as viceroy or
(or, as a common blunder, "viceregent"). For example,
was namestnik of
(1823–44) and of the
(). Sometimes the term is confused with
(генерал-губернатор). For example, during Vorontsov's term of office in Bessarabia, seven governor-generals were in, and at the same time he held the office of Governor General of . The following namestnik existed under the Romanov Emperors of Russia:
, while in personal union under the Emperors of Russia as Kings (styled T 20 June 1815– 5 November 1916), had only one Viceroy, 9 December 1815– 1 December 1830:
(b. 1779–d. 1831)
(Armenia, Azerbaijan and G first under Governors in Tbilisi ) had Viceroys of Transcaucasia.
's 1799 formation of the
obviated viceroys in the colonization of the northwestern New World.
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by . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2010) ()
Further information:
, in present Canada, after a single Governor (24 July 1534 – 15 January 1541 ) had
and Viceroys 15 January ;– September 1543
(b. c.1500–d. 1560), after September 1543–3 January 1578 Abandonment again 3 January ;– February 1606 Troilus de Mesgouez, marquis de la Roche-Mesgouez (d. 1606) (viceroy and from 12 January 1598, lieutenant-general), February 1606 – 1614
(b. 1557–d. 1615); next a series of Viceroys (resident in France) 8 October 1611 – 1672, later Governors and Governors-general.
Further information:
In Italian Viceré: The highest colonial representatives in the "federation" of
(six provinces, e together , Eritrea and ) were no longer styled "High Commissioner", but "Viceroy and Governor-general" from 5 May 1936, when Italian forces occupied , until 27 November 1941, when the last Italian administrator surrendered to the Allies. The Italian King
claimed the title of "" (N?gus? n?g?st, "King of Kings") and declared himself to be a successor to the ,[] even though
continued to hold this title while in exile, and resumed his actual, physical throne on 5 May 1941.
On 7 April 1939, Italy invaded the
(today ). As Viceré of Albania of Victor Emmanuel III of Italy were the Marchese
di San Savino and after his departure General .
Further information:
was the first ruler and Viceroy of Bosnia, appointed by
by 1154. His war affairs are documented as he fought several notable battles. He also maintained ties with knights
and donated lands in
to their Order. His own biological brother Dominic was on record as a knight Templar.[]
Further information:
From the earliest medieval period in the , the position of viceroy was held by
who acted as king's representative in Croatian lands and supreme commander of Croatian army. In the 18th century, Croatian bans eventually become chief government officials in Croatia. They were at the head of Ban's Government, effectively the first prime ministers of Croatia. The last ban held his position until 1941 and the collapse of Yugoslavia in WWII.
An equivalent office, called the , was created in the
towards the end of the sixth century for governors of important areas too far from the imperial capital of
to receive regular instruction or reinforcement. The chosen governors of these provinces were empowered to act in place of the monarch (hence ex-arch) with more discretion and autonomy than was granted other categories of Governor. This was an extraordinary break from the centralized traditions of the
and was an early example of the principle of Viceroyalty.
As with many princely and administrative titles, viceroy is often used, generally unofficially, to render somewhat equivalent titles and offices in non-western cultures.
In cultures all over the continent of Africa, the role of viceroy has been subsumed into a hereditary noble as opposed to appointive administrative position. In the Arabo-Berber north, for example, the title of
is often used by individuals who derive their authority to rule from someone else in much the same way as a viceroy would. Elsewhere, subordinate
under the rule of a
or subordinate
in the realms of the reigning
continue to occupy statutorily recognized positions in the contemporary countries of
as the customary representatives of their respective principals in the various areas that are under their immediate control.
of Egypt, especially in the dynasty initiated by
(). This officer established an almost autonomous regime in Egypt, which officially still was under Ottoman rule. Although Mehemet Ali/Muhammad Ali used different symbols to mark his independence from the , he never openly declared himself independent. Adopting the title of viceroy was yet another way to walk the thin line between challenging the Sultan's power explicitly and respecting his jurisdiction. Muhammad Ali Pasha's grandson, , subsequently received the title of
which was almost an equivalent to viceroy.
The post of T?ng Tr?n (governor of all military provinces) was a political post in the early of
(). From 1802, under the reign of emperor , there were always two T?ng Tr?n who directly ruled Vietnam's northern part named Thành Long ( and surrounding territories) and the southern part named Gia ??nh ( and surrounding territories) while Nguyen emperors ruled only the middle part named Vùng Kinh K? ( and surrounding territories). T?ng Tr?n is sometimes translated to English as viceroy. In 1830, emperor
abolished the post in order to increase the imperial direct ruling power in all over Vietnam.
Main article:
During the ,
dynasties, there existed positions of viceroys having control over various provinces (e.g.,
"Viceroyal, a", The Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed. 1989, OED Online, Oxford University Press, 4 Apr 2000 &&
O Secretário dos despachos e coisas da ?ndia pero d?Alcá?ova Carneiro, p.65, Maria Cecília Costa Veiga de Albuquerque Ramos, Universidade de Lisboa, 2009 (In Portuguese) &&
Diffie, Bailey W. and George D. Winius (1977), "Foundations of the Portuguese Empire, ", p.323-325, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.David Tan .
A. J. R. Russell-Wood,, p. 66, JHU Press, 1998,
Boris Fausto, , p.50, Cambridge University Press, 1999,
Imperial Gazetteer of India, Clarendon Press, Oxford, New Edition 1909, vol 4, p. 16.
Nath, Aman, "Dome Over India", India Book House Ltd. .
This article incorporates material from the
Kli?uchevski?, V. O. (Vasili? Osipovich); Duddington, Natalie. (1994). A course in Russian history—the seventeenth century. Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe.  .
Larin, A. K. (2004). Gosudarev namestnik : istoricheskai?a povest? o M.N. Krechetnikov. Kaluga: Zolotai?a allei?a.  .
(Russian) Тархов, Сергей, "Изменение административно-территориального деления России в XIII-XX в." (), Логос, ,  
Ledonne, John P. (January–March 2002). . Cahiers du Monde russe. pp. 5–33 2010.
Thomas Mitchell, Handbook for Travellers in Russia, Poland, and Finland, 1888, p. 460. Google Print
The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century
Judith Mary Upton-Ward, H.J.A. Sire. "24. The Priory of Vrana". The Military Orders: On Land and by Sea. p. 221.
Magyar Országos Levéltár
Philip Taylor (2004), , University of Hawaii Press, p. 36.
Aznar, Daniel/Hanotin, Guillaume/May, Niels F. (dir.), ? la place du roi. Vice-rois, gouverneurs et ambassadeurs dans les monarchies fran?aise et espagnole (XVIe-XVIIIe siècles). Madrid: Casa de Velázquez, 2014.
Elliott, J. H., Imperial Spain, . London: Edward Arnold, 1963.
Fisher, Lillian Estelle. Viceregal Administration in the Spanish American Colonies. Berkeley, University of California Press, 1926.
Harding, C. H., The Spanish Empire in America. New York: Oxford University Press, 1947.
This article incorporates material from the
Andrada (undated). The Life of Dom John de Castro: The Fourth Vice Roy of India. Jacinto Freire de Andrada. Translated into English by Peter Wyche. (1664) Henry Herrington, New Exchange, London. Facsimile edition (1994) AES Reprint, New Delhi. .
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