Types of Solar Cells and Application (PDF Download Available)
See all >21 CitationsSee all >55 ReferencesSee all >4 Figures
15.28University of Guilan5.63Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman4.72Payame Noor UniversityAbstractA solar cell is an electronic device which directly converts sunlight into electricity. Light shining on the solar cell produces both a current and a voltage to generate electric power. This process requires firstly, a material in which the absorption of light raises an electron to a higher energy state, and secondly, the movement of this higher energy electron from the solar cell into an external circuit. The electron then dissipates its energy in the external circuit and returns to the solar cell. A variety of materials and processes can potentially satisfy the requirements for photovoltaic energy conversion, but in practice nearly all photovoltaic energy conversion uses semiconductor materials in the form of a p-n junction. With regard to the development of sustainable energy, such as solar energy, in this article we will Study types of solar cells and their applications.Discover the world's research14+ million members100+ million publications700k+ research projectsFigures
American Journal of Optics and Photonics ): 94-113 Published online August 21, 2015 (http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/j/ajop) doi: 10.11648/j.ajop. ISSN:
(Print); ISSN:
Types of Solar Cells and Application Askari Mohammad Bagher1, Mirzaei Mahmoud Abadi Vahid2, Mirhabibi Mohsen1 1Department of Physics, Payame Noor University, Tehran, Iran 2Faculty of Physics, Shahid Bahonar University, Kerman, Iran Email address: mb_ (Askari M. B.) To cite this article: Askari Mohammad Bagher, Mirzaei Mahmoud Abadi Vahid, Mirhabibi Mohsen. Types of Solar Cells and Application. American Journal of Optics and Photonics. Vol. 3, No. 5, 2015, pp. 94-113. doi: 10.11648/j.ajop.
Abstract: A solar cell is an electronic device which directly converts sunlight into electricity. Light shining on the solar cell produces
the absorption of light raises an electron to a higher energy state, and secondly, the movement of this higher energy electron from the solar cell into an external circuit. The electron then dissipates its energy in the external circuit and returns to the solar cell. A variety of materials and processes can potentially satisfy the requirements for photovoltaic energy conversion, but in practice nearly
photovoltaic energy
conversion
semiconductor
the development of sustainable energy, such as solar energy, in this article we will Study types of solar cells and their applications. Keywords: Solar Cells, Semiconductor Materials, Sustainable Energy
1. Introduction The
Earth receives
incredible
energy. The
been burning
provides enough
in one minute to supply
world&s energy needs for
current population would consume in 27 years. In fact, &The amount of solar radiation striking the earth over a three-day period is equivalent to the
stored in all fossil
energy sources.& Solar energy is a free, inexhaustible resource, yet harnessing it is a relatively new idea. Considering that &the first practical solar cells were made less than 30 years ago,& we have come a long way. The prolongation of solar professional companies designing
for individual homes
means there
excuse not to consider
solar power
in efficiency
transistor
and accompanying
semiconductor
technology.
are several advantages of photovoltaic
solar power that make
&one of the most promising renewable
energy sources
world.& It
non-polluting,
break down, requires little maintenance and no supervision, and has a life of 20-30
low running costs. It
especially unique
large-scale
installation
required. Remote
of electricity by constructing as small or as large of a system as needed.
generators
distributed
to homes, schools, or businesses, where their assembly requires no extra development
land area and
function is safe and quiet. As communities grow, more solar energy capacity can
in developing
countries,
the photovoltaic&s
electricity
the sun beats down on the land, making solar power the obvious energy
&Governments
modular, decentralized character
filling the
needs of the
countries.&
is much more
practical than
the extension of
expensive power lines into remote areas, where people do not have the money to
conventional
electricity.
two primary
disadvantages
of sunlight
equipment.
a location
&varies greatly
geographical location,
Considering
the importance of the use of solar cells and efficient use of solar energy,
this article we will examine
the different types of solar cells. A
photovoltaic
electrical
device that
directly into
electricity by the
photovoltaic
chemical phenomenon.[1] It is a form of photoelectric cell,
defined as a
electrical
characteristics,
current, voltage, or resistance, vary when exposed to light. Solar cells
Askari Mohammad Bagher et al.:
Types of Solar Cells and Application
of photovoltaic
otherwise known
being photovoltaic irrespective of whether the source is sunlight or an
artificial
(for example
detectors),
other electromagnetic
or measuring light intensity. The operation of a photovoltaic (PV) cell requires 3 basic attributes: 1. The absorption of light, generating
electron-hole pairs or exactions. 2. The separation of charge carriers of opposite types. 3. The separate
extraction
of those carriers
an external circuit. 2. Types of Solar Cells and Application Solar
semiconducting material they are made of. These materials must have certain characteristics
are designed to
handle sunlight
that reaches
Earth&s surface, while others are optimized for use in space. Solar cells can be made
light-absorbing
material (single-junction)
configurations (multi-junctions) to take advantage of various absorption and charge separation
mechanisms. Solar
be classified into
generation
first generation
cells—also
conventional,
traditional
or wafer-based
cells—are
crystalline
the commercially
predominant
technology,
includes materials
polysilicon
monocrystalline
silicon. Second generation cells are thin film solar cells, that include amorphous
are commercially
significant
utility-scale
photovoltaic
power stations, building
integrated photovoltaics or
in small stand-alone
generation
cells includes a
thin-film technologies
often described as emerging photovoltaics—most of them
yet been commercially
or development
materials,
often organometallic
as inorganic
substances. Despite the fact
that their efficiencies
been low and
the stability
for commercial
applications,
invested into these technologies as they promise to achieve the goal of producing low-cost, high-efficient solar cells. “First generation”
panels include
silicon solar
They are made from a single silicon
crystal (mono-crystalline), or cut from a block of silicon that is made up of many crystals (multi-crystalline - shown at right). “Second
generation”
less expensive
traditional
as they require a decreased amount of materials for construction. The
a physically
technology
to photovoltaics. They are only slightly less efficient than other types but do
require more surface area
generate the same amount of power. [2] The following are the different types of solar cells. 2.1. Amorphous Silicon Solar Cell (A-Si) Amorphous
non-crystalline
of silicon.
film technologies
calculators,
also powers some private homes, buildings, and remote facilities. United
(UniSolar)
pioneered amorphous-silicon
maker today, as
and Sanyo.
Amorphous silicon
panels are
vapor-depositing
silicon material – about 1 micrometer thick – on a substrate material such
be deposited
temperatures,
degrees Celsius, which allows for deposition on plastic as well.In its simplest form, the cell structure has a single sequence of p-i-n layers.
However, single
layer cells
significant degradation
15-35%) when exposed
mechanism of
degradation
Staebler-Wronski
discoverers. Better stability requires the use of a thinner layers in order to increase
material. However, this reduces light absorption, hence cell efficiency. This has
industry to develop
and even triple layer
devices that
contain p-i-n
cells stacked
top of the other. One of the pioneers of developing solar cells using amorphous
Uni-Solar.
layer system
illustration below)
capture light
full solar
spectrum)As
the illustration, the thickness of the solar cell is just 1 micron, or about 1/300th the size
mono-crystalline silicon
cell. While crystalline silicon achieves a yield of about 18 percent, amorphous solar cells’ yield remains at around 7 percent. The low
efficiency
Staebler-Wronski effect,
the panels
to sunlight,
results in
10 percent
of amorphous
manufacturing costs, which makes these cells very cost competitive.
Fig. 1. Amorphous silicon is Uni-Solar. They use a triple layer system.
American Journal of Optics and Photonics ): 94-113
2.2. Biohybrid Solar Cell A
a combination
(photosystem
and inorganic matter. Biohybrid solar cells have been made by a team of researchers at Vanderbilt University. The team used the photosystem I (a photoactive protein complex located in the
thylakoid membrane)
to recreate
the natural process of photosynthesis to obtain a greater efficiency in solar energy conversion.
of renewable energy.[3][4] Multiple layers
of photosystem I gather photonic energy, convert
that goes through the cell. The cell itself consists of many of the same
non-organic
solar cells
photosystem
I complexes
introduced
several days in the gold layer. After days the photosytem I are made visible and appear
thin green
conversion.
The biohybrid
phase.The team from Vanderbilt University began conducting research on the photosynthesis when they began to see and focus on the
photosystem
widely available
and efficient
conversion they
incorporate
different technologies.
The team used spinach as
their source for the photosystem
purification
the photosystem I from the thylakoid membrane. Their research resulted in a greatly improved electrical current (1000 times greater)
solar cells.
of undergraduate engineers
to help build the first prototype of the biohybrid
solar cell. The team has also come
up with a second design of the protein complex the photosystem II.
Fig. 2. Making Multilayered Bio-Hybrid Solar cells. 2.3. Buried Contact Solar Cell The
efficiency commercial
technology
metal contact
laser-formed
contact technology overcomes many of the disadvantages associated with
screen-printed
contact solar
performance
than commercial
screen-printed
a buried contact solar cell is shown in the figure below.
Fig. 3. Cross-section of Laser Grooved, Buried Contact Solar Cell. A key
efficiency
solar cell is that the metal is buried in a laser-formed groove inside the silicon solar cell. This allows for a large metal height-to-width aspect ratio. A large
metal contact aspect ratio in turn allows
contact finger,
top surface.
Therefore,
metal aspect
ratio allows
large number of closely spaced metal fingers, while still retaining a high
transparency.
a screen printed solar cell
have shading losses as high as 10
15%, while
contact structure,
shading losses will only be 2 to 3%. These lower shading losses allow low reflection
and therefore
higher short-circuit currents.
In addition
reflection
properties,
contact technology also allows low parasitic resistance losses due to its
its plated
Emitter Resistance page, the emitter resistance is reduced in a buried contact solar cell since narrower finger
dramatically reduces
resistance
grid resistance is also low since the finger resistance is reduced by the large
and by the
of copper,
resistivity
paste used in
screen printing.
As well, the
contact resistance
a buried contact
solar cell is
lower than that
printed solar
the semiconductor-metal
metal-silicon contact
allow large area solar cells with high FFs.
Askari Mohammad Bagher et al.:
Types of Solar Cells and Application
When compared
screen-printed cell, the
metalization scheme of a buried contact solar cell also improves the cell&s emitter. To minimise resistive losses, the emitter
region of a screen-printed solar cell is very heavily doped and results in a &dead&
layer at the
cell. Since
emitter losses
structure,
emitter doping
be optimized
high open-circuit
and short-circuit currents. Furthermore, a buried contact structure includes
self-aligned,
thereby reduces
recombination
contributes
open-circuit
efficiency
advantages
technology
significant
and performance
benefits. In
terms of $/W, the
buried contact solar cell is the same as a screen-printed solar cell [8]. However, due to the inclusion of certain area-related costs as well as fixed costs in a PV system, a higher efficiency solar cell technology results in lower cost electricity. An additional advantage of buried contact technology is that it can be used for concentrator systems [5].
Fig. 4. Cross section of a partially plated laser groove. 2.4. Cadmium Telluride Solar Cell (CdTe) Cadmium
photovoltaics
a photovoltaic
technology
of cadmium
telluride,
semiconductor
electricity.[10]
Cadmium telluride PV is the only thin film technology with lower costs than
conventional
crystalline
silicon in multi-kilowatt systems.[6][7][8] On
carbon footprint, lowest water use and shortest energy payback time of
solar technologies.[9][10][11]
CdTe&s energy
payback time of less than
year enables for
carbon reductions without short-term energy
The toxicity of
cadmium is
environmental
of CdTe modules at the end of their life time,[12] though there are
uncertainties[13][14]
is skeptical towards this technology.[15][16] The usage of rare materials may also
become a limiting factor
the industrial scalability
CdTe technology
tellurium—of
the anionic
comparable
the earth&s
contributes
significantly
module&s cost.[17]CdTe photovoltaics
world&s largest photovoltaic power
stations, such
the Topaz Solar Farm.
production, CdTe technology
thin film market in 2013.[18] A prominent manufacturer of CdTe thin
technology
in Tempe, Arizona. 2.5. Toxicity of Cadmium
Fig. 5. Graphic showing the five layers that comprise CdTe solar cells. Cadmium is one of the top 6 deadliest and toxic materials known.
than elemental cadmium, at least
terms of acute exposure.This is
if ingested, if its dust
inhaled, or if
is handled improperly (i.e. without appropriate gloves and other safety precautions). The toxicity
solely due to
cadmium content. One study
cadmium telluride
oxygen damage to the cell membrane, mitochondria, and cell nucleus. In
typically recrystallized in a toxic compound of cadmium
chloride.The disposal
large-scale
commercialization
of cadmium
been made to understand
and overcome
issues. Researchers from the U.S.
Department of Energy&s Brookhaven
National Laboratory
large-scale
PV modules
the environment,
modules at
their useful life resolves any environmental concerns. During their operation, these modules do not produce
any pollutants,
and furthermore,
displacing
great environmental benefits. CdTe PV modules appear to be more environmentally
American Journal of Optics and Photonics ): 94-113
Cd.The approach to CdTe safety
Union and China
and cadmium compounds
considered as
carcinogens in EU whereas China regulations
allow Cd products for export only.
regulating
Cadmium Telluride
the present
most common opinion
of Cadmium
Terlluride
residential
industrial
rooftop installations
major environmental
problem. [19] 2.6. Concentrated PV Cell (CVP and HCVP) Following
Concentrating
Photovoltaic
(CPV) system
electrical
conventional
photovoltaic
technology
does, but uses an advanced optical system to focuses a large area of sunlight
efficiency.
Different CPV
differentiated
the concentration factor, such as
low-concentration (LCPV)
concentration
Concentrator
photovoltaic&s (CPV) is a photovoltaic technology that generates electricity from sunlight. Contrary to conventional photovoltaic systems, it uses lenses and curved mirrors to focus sunlight onto small, but
efficient,
multi-junction
In addition,
and sometimes
their efficiency.[20]:30
development
is rapidly
competitiveness
utility-scale segment and in areas of high solar insulation. CPV
technology
Recent technological
advancements
reach viability and compete with traditional fossil fuel plants, such as coal, natural gas,
oil, when installed in regions of the world
Concentrating photovoltaic
converting
into electricity. Traditional rooftop solar modules rely on the same basic
electricity. CPV
systems have
an optical component, which “concentrates” significant amounts of sunlight onto “multi-junction” solar cells. Especially High concentrating
photovoltaic
the potential
competitive
They possess the highest efficiency of all existing PV technologies, and a smaller photovoltaic array also reduces the balance
of system costs. Currently, CPV is not used in the PV roof
top segment and far less common than conventional PV systems. [21] Concentrating photovoltaic (CPV)
much the same way as traditional PV modules, except that they use optics
concentrate
not cover the
entire module
area. This concentration factor
in Semprius’ case
over 1,100
– dramatically
reduces the amount
semiconductor
(&0.1 percent)
cost-effectively
high-performance
multi-junction
efficiency
levels greater than 41 percent.
to work properly, however, CPV modules must accurately face the
Therefore, CPV modules
conjunction
high-performance trackers
intelligently
automatically
sun throughout
day. Other
CPV systems
are built and operate much like traditional PV systems.
Fig. 6. Efficiency of CPV. 2.7. Copper Indium Gallium Selenide Solar Cells (CI (G) S) One of the most interesting
controversial materials in solar is Copper-Indium-Gallium-Selenide, or CIGS for short. It was part of a solar thin-film-hype cycle where some CIGS companies such as Solyndra, NanoSolar and MiaSolé almost became household names.
A copper indium gallium selenide solar cell (or CIGS cell,
CI(G)S or CIS cell) is a thin
electric power. They are
manufactured by depositing
layer of copper,
plastic backing,
electrodes
to collect
current. Because
absorption coefficient and strongly absorbs sunlight, a much thinner film is required than of other semiconductor materials.
Fig. 7. Graphic showing the five layers that comprise CIGS solar cells. CIGS
mainstream
PV technologies,
and amorphous silicon. Like these materials, CIGS layers are thin enough
on flexible
substrates.
technologies
Askari Mohammad Bagher et al.:
Types of Solar Cells and Application
high-temperature
deposition
techniques,
performance
performance
compared to modern
polysilicon-based
low-temperature
deposition of
CIGS cells
have erased
of this performance difference. It is best known as the
material for
technology
the photovoltaic
industry.[22]
the advantage of being able to be deposited on flexible substrate materials, producing highly flexible, lightweight solar panels. Improvements in efficiency
have made CIGS
an established technology among alternative cell materials. 2.8. Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell (DSSC) Dye
Sensitized
sometimes referred
sensitised
third generation photovoltaic
(solar) cell that
any visible light into electrical
energy.This new class
of advanced solar cell can be likened to artificial photosynthesis due to the way in which
absorption
light energy. Dye Sensitized
by Professor
Graetzel and
O’Regan at
?cole Polytechnique
Fédérale
Switzerland and is often referred to as the Gr?etzel cell, we call it G Cell. DSSC is a disruptive technology that can be used to produce electricity
wide range
conditions,
indoors and outdoors,
artificial
and natural light into energy to power a broad range of electronic devices.
dye-sensitized
or DYSC[23]) is a low-cost solar cell belonging to the group of thin
cells.[24]
semiconductor formed between a photo-sensitized anode and an electrolyte, a photo electrochemical system. The DSSC has a number of
conventional roll-printing
techniques,
semi-flexible
semi-transparent
applicable
to glass-based systems, and most of the materials used are low-cost. In practice it has proven difficult to eliminate a number of expensive
materials, notably platinum and ruthenium, and the liquid electrolyte presents a serious challenge to making a cell
for use in
Although its
conversion efficiency
its price/performance
allow them
electrical
generation
by achieving
Commercial
applications, which
were held up
to chemical
stability problems,[25] are
forecast in
Photovoltaic
to significantly contribute to renewable electricity generation by 2020.
Fig. 8. Dye-sensitized solar cell device schematic and operation.
American Journal of Optics and Photonics ): 94-113
2.9. Gallium Arsenide Germanium Solar Cell (GaAs) Gallium arsenide is composed of 2
gallium and
individual
bind together,
aforementioned
which displays many interesting characteristics. Gallium arsenide is a
semiconductor
velocity and electron mobility than that of siliconW. A semiconductor is
electrical
conductivity
an insulator and
may vary its
ability to conduct electricity when it is cool versus when it is hot. This makes it very
applications.
to gallium
is a quality
light efficiently.
the elements
bandgap semiconductor
blende crystal
structure. Gallium arsenide
manufacture
as microwave
integrated
monolithic microwave integrated circuits, infrared light-emitting diodes, laser diodes, solar cells and optical windows.[26] For
fact that it
greater electron mobility
that silicon cannot. TransistorsW made of this material can run at frequencies
transistors
less noise
high frequencies
as their silicon
counterparts.
higher breakdown
minimum (reverse) voltage applied that can cause to make a part of the component electrically conductive (or conduct in reverse). Because of these factors, gallium arsenide has been a good candidate
many electrical
applications ranging
from the common to the extraordinary. Some of these include cellular telephones, satellites and
satellite communication, micro and nano
semiconductors,
nano based
one paramount task. That is the
production of electricity through the
absorption
of photons.
radiant energy from the sun, strikes the cell, a certain portion of it is absorbed
semiconductor
The semiconductor
gallium arsenide. This means that the
energy of the absorbed light is transferred
semiconductor,
gallium arsenide. The energy excites
electrons, knocking them loose or otherwise removing them from their previous bound state. This allows them to flow freely. Solar and photo voltaic cells also have
more electric
fields that
mediator. This
absorption
to flow in a certain direction. This flow of electrons, like many others, is a current. This current can be harnesssed by placing metal contacts on the top and bottom
With these newly placed
contacts the current can be drawn off to power just about any external
application. There are many
GaAs crystal must
be created.
Without this, the
function. In
section some
methods to
create GaAs
discussed.
Three effective
of growing
Epitaxy, Metalorganic
Electrochemical Deposition (or Electroplating).
Fig. 9. Cross-sectional diagram of InGaP/GaAs/Ge. 2.10. Hybrid Solar Cell Hybrid solar cells combine advantages of both organic and inorganic semiconductors. Hybrid photovoltaics have organic materials
conjugated
absorb light
holes.[27]
Inorganic materials in hybrid cells are used as the acceptor and electron transporter in the
structure. The hybrid
photovoltaic devices have
roll-to-roll processing but also for scalable solar power conversion. In hybrid
solar cells,
an organic
with a high
photoactive layer.[28]
a heterojunction-type
photoactive
conversion
efficiency
single material.[29] One of the materials acts as the photon absorber and
facilitates
exciton dissociation
transferred
and then separated after
an exiton created
delocalized on
donor-acceptor
complex.[30]
to separate the exciton is provided by the energy offset between the
conduction
and acceptor.[29] After
dissociation, the
transported to
the respective
electrodes
percolation
network. The
a material before
annihilation by recombination is the
exciton diffusion length. This is short in polymers, on the order of 5–10
nanometers.[31]
non-radiative
picosecond
nanosecond.[32] Excitons
acceptor would
contribute
photocurrent.
the problem
bulk heterojunction structure is used rather than a phase-separated bilayer.
Dispersing
throughout
polymer matrix creates
a larger interfacial
to occur.[29]
Askari Mohammad Bagher et al.:
Types of Solar Cells and Application
Fig. 10. Structure of carbon nanotubes based solar cells. 2.11. Luminescent Solar Concentrator Cell (LSC) A
luminescent
concentrator
trap solar
over a large area, before
directing the
energy (through luminescent emission) to cells mounted on the thin edges
material layer.
as polymethylmethacrylate
doped with luminescent species such as organic dyes, quantum dots or rare earth complexes.[33] The main motivation for
implementing LSCs is to replace a
expensive solar
flat-plate PV panel, with a cheaper alternative. Therefore there is both a reduction in both the cost of the module (?/W) and the solar power
produced (?/kWh).
key advantage
typical concentrating
direct and
radiation. Therefore
tracking of
sun is not required.[34] The
development
working structure
theoretical
maximum efficiency. An ideal LSC would have the following properties: A
absorption
A large shift between the absorption and emission spectra
term stability.[35]
luminescent concentrator system
surface-embedded monocrystalline
Schematic illustration of
a device, consisting of
an array of solar
microcells
(μ-cells), a
luminescent
layer), a supporting, transparent substrate and
inset on the
right shows a cross sectional view, with key.
American Journal of Optics and Photonics ): 94-113
Initial designs typically comprised parallel thin, flat layers of
alternating luminescent
and transparent
materials, placed to
concentrated
(narrower) edges.[36][37]
the concentrated
electric power.Other configurations
(such as doped or coated
optical fibers,
contoured stacks
alternating layers)
may better fit particular applications. The layers
be separate
parallel plates
or alternating
structure.
principle,
the effective
sufficiently
the effective output area, the output would be of correspondingly higher
irradiance
per square
concentration
ratio between output and input irradiance of the whole device. For example, imagine a square glass sheet (or
5 mm thick. Its input area (e.g. the surface of one single face of the
times greater
open sides)
4000 square
(200x5x4).
approximation,
the concentration
proportional
the edges multiplied
efficiency
incoming light towards
output area.
could divert incoming light from the face towards the edges with an efficiency
hypothetical
our example
irradiance
times greater
a concentration factor of 5.Similarly, a graded refractive index optic fibre
mm in cross
section, and
long, with a luminescent coating might prove useful. 2.12. Micromorph Cells (Tandem-Cell Using a-Si/μc-Si) Micromorph
a multijunction–architecture
consisting of
cells that are stacked
each other. While
amorphous silicon
thicker microcrystalline silicon bottom cell absorbs the red and near-infrared light, allowing
so-called tandem cell to
cover a wider
“Micromorph”
tandem solar cells consisting of a microcrystalline silicon bottom cell and
amorphous silicon
are considered
one of the most promising new thin-film silicon solar-cell concepts. Their
simultaneously achieving high conversion efficiencies
at relatively low
manufacturing costs. Since the bandgaps of amorphous Silicon (1.7eV) and microcrystalline
Silicon (1.1eV)
suited for
tandem solar
Shockley-Queisser
allows conversion efficiencies of over 30%. In reality this limit can not
reached and
stable efficiencies
stable efficiencies
cells which are around 6%. One reason of the low costs of silicon thin
um) compared to silicon wafer (200
red and infrared wavelength range
of silicon
absorb all light and therefore Light trapping is needed.
Schematic structure
a micromorph
with an integrated
intermediate
reflector.
μc-Si:H: Microcrystalline silicon. 2.13. Monocrystalline Solar Cell (Mono-Si) Monocrystalline
&single-crystal
silicon&, &single-crystal Si&, &mono c-Si&, or just mono-Si) is the base material
electronic equipment today. Mono-Si also serves as photovoltaic, light-absorbing
manufacture
It consists
crystal lattice
entire solid
is continuous,
unbroken to
boundaries.
intrinsic, consisting
exceedingly
doped, containing
very small
quantities
elements added
semiconducting
properties.
silicon monocrystals
Czochralski
into ingots
several hundred
kilogrammes.
then sliced
into thin wafers of a few hundred microns for further processing. Single-crystal
important technological
few decades—the &silicon era&,[38]
availability
affordable
has been essential
the development
the electronic
devices on which the present day electronic and informatic revolution is based. Monocrystalline silicon differs from other allotropic forms, such
as the non-crystalline
amorphous silicon—used in
polycrystalline
that consists of small crystals, also known as crystallites.
Askari Mohammad Bagher et al.:
Types of Solar Cells and Application
Fig. 13. Monocrystalline solar cell structure. 2.14. Multijunction Solar Cell (MJ) Multi-junction (MJ) solar cells are solar cells with multiple p–n
semiconductor
materials. Each material&s
p-n junction
will produce
electric current
in response
wavelengths
of multiple semiconducting
materials allows the
absorbance of a broader range of wavelengths, improving the cell&s sunlight to electrical energy conversion efficiency. Traditional single-junction cells have a maximum theoretical efficiency of 34%. Theoretically, an infinite
junctions would
have a limiting
efficiency
concentrated sunlight.[39] Currently, the
examples of
traditional crystalline silicon
efficiencies
and 25%,[40]
multi-junction
have demonstrated
performance
Commercial examples of tandem,
layer, cells are widely available
at 30% under one-sun illumination,[42]
and improve to around 40% under concentrated sunlight. However, this efficiency is gained at the cost of increased complexity and manufacturing price.
price-to-performance
roles, notably in aerospace
their high power-to-weight ratio is desirable.
In terrestrial
applications these solar
cells have been
concentrated
photovoltaics (CPV),with
world. Tandem
fabrication
techniques
improve the
performance
particular,
the technique
applied to
lower cost
cells using
conventional crystalline
10% efficiency that is lightweight and flexible. This approach has been used by several commercial vendors, but these products are
roofing materials.
Multi-junction
multiple semiconductorW
(subcells)
electricity
efficiencies.
band gapW designed to efficiently absorb a specific segment of the solar
spectrumW.
advantages
over single-junction
devices: a
absorption of incident
energy extraction from these photons. The lowest band
of a MJ cell
gap. Therefore, the MJ cell can absorb extra photons that possess less
own lowest band
The MJ cell
will absorb the
same photons more efficiently since having band gaps closer to the photon energy will reduce thermalization losses.
Fig. 14. Multi-junction Cell. 2.15. Nanocrystal Solar Cell Nanocrystal solar cells are solar cells based on a substrate with a coating of nanocrystals. The nanocrystals are typically based
substrates
are generally silicon or various organic conductors. Quantum dot solar cells are a variant of this approach, but take advantage of quantum mechanical effects to extract further performance. Dye-sensitized solar cells are another related approach, but in this case the nano-structuring is part of the substrate.Previous fabrication
beam epitaxy processes, but colloidal
synthesis allows for cheaper manufacture.
nanocrystals
“spin-coating”.
This involves
substrate, which is then rotated
very quickly. The
spreads out uniformly,
required thickness
achieved. It
measurements of
the efficiency
nanocrystal
solar cell
incorrect and that nanocrystal solar cells are not suitable for large scale manufacturing.[43] Recent
experimented
selenide (PbSe)
semiconductor,
telluride photovoltaics
well established in
the production
of second-generation
thin film solar
researched
well. What’s more, solar
nanocrystals could
American Journal of Optics and Photonics ): 94-113
prove to be cheap,
giving them a significant advantage over other approaches to high-efficiency solar
example, advanced
“multijunction”
efficiencies
complicated manufacturing
expensive semiconductors
solar spectrum.
nanocrystals,
relatively easy
in conventional solar cells,
best of which are made
very large,
nanocrystals
also have marked advantages over the other nanocrystal materials that
multielectron
these materials
contain toxic
cadmium, and others rely on elements such as indium that are in limited supply. But
silicon is
both safe and
abundant. It’s
also well studied. Indeed,
of the same
reasons, silicon is
and it’s attractive
deployment
of photovoltaics in the future.
device made
and colleagues1
a novel composite
comprising
mesoporous,
nanocrystalline
sensitized
amphiphilic
red molecules),
electrolyte
interpenetrated
sandwiched
transparent conducting oxide (TCO) electrodes. The function of the device is based on a photo-induced charge separation at the TiO2/dye/electrolyte interface. Light absorption
sensitizer
excited state
conduction
nanocrystalline
TiO2. The dye subsequently
returns to its ground state through electron donation
from iodide ions in the gel electrolyte. Re-reduction of the iodine to iodide ions is achieved at the platinized counter electrode. 2.16. Perovskite Solar Cell The name &perovskite solar cell& is derived from the ABX3 crystal structure
the absorber materials,
is referred to
perovskite
structure.
studied perovskite
methylammonium
trihalide (CH3NH3PbX3,
Br-, Cl-),
between 2.3
eV depending
Formamidinum
trihalide (H2NCHNH2PbX3) has also shown promise, with bandgaps between 2.2 eV and 1.5 eV. The
minimum bandgap is closer to
single-junction
than methylammonium
trihalide,
be capable
efficiencies.[44]
inclusion of lead as component of the perovskite
cells based
perovskite
as CH3NH3SnI3
power-conversion efficiencies.[45][46][47] Perovskite
an advantage
traditional silicon
simplicity
processing. Traditional
expensive,
multistep processes requiring high temperatures (upwards of 1000
°C) and vacuums in special clean room facilities to produce high purity
wafers.[48]
techniques
to scale up, while the organic-inorganic perovskite material can be manufactured with
wet chemistry and processing techniques in a traditional lab environment.[49] Most notably, methylammonium
formamidinium
trihalides
have been created using a variety of solvent techniques and vapor deposition techniques, both of which have the potential to be scaled up with relative feasibility.[50] In solution
processing,
lead halide
methylammonium iodide
a substrate.
Subsequent
evaporation
convective
self-assembly
well crystallized
perovskite
ionic interactions within the material (The organic component also contributes to
a lower crystallization temperature). However, simple
spin-coating
homogenous
layers, instead
drips.[51]
solution processing
platelets,
and other defects in the layer, which would hinder the efficiency of
room temperature solvent-solvent extraction produces
high-quality crystalline films with precise control over
thickness down to 20
nanometers
centimeters
square without
generating
&perovskite precursors are dissolved in a
solvent called NMP and coated onto
substrate.
that selectively
away. What&s left is an ultra-smooth film of perovskite crystals.&[52]
Fig. 16. Perovskite solar cell structure.
Askari Mohammad Bagher et al.:
Types of Solar Cells and Application
In vapor assisted techniques, spin coated or exfoliated lead halide
methylammonium iodide
temperature
This technique holds an advantage over solution processing,
possibility
multi-stacked
over larger areas.[53] This could be applicable for
the production of
multi-junction
Additionally,
deposited techniques
simple solution
techniques
can result
mesoscopic designs, such
as coatings
Such a design
perovskite
dye-sensitized solar
of scalability. Process cost
complexity is
significantly less than
deposition
vapor assisted
techniques
further solvents,
remnants. Solution
processing
with perovskite solar cells revolve around stability, as the material is observed to degrade in standard environmental conditions, suffering
efficiency
on inorganic photovoltaic materials, such as silicon or cadmium telluride,
compounds, such as PCDTBT. Both have their own respective advantages and
disadvantages.
already industrially
well-established,
converting
to electricity
efficiency
solar panels
lifespans.
is that the raw
materials required, particularly with silicon, can be
expensive.
potentially low-cost
manufactured
to produce. However, even on a
laboratory-scale, organic solar cells struggle to achieve efficiencies of more than 10%. Even more crucially, the organic compounds gradually decompose under
Consequently
these organic
solar panels, as
on their roof
performance
of inorganic
organic materials.
has witnessed
remarkable
of materials
perovskites.
organic-inorganic material, essentially an organic compound
with an inorganic element
Perovskite refers
specific type
structure,
certain minerals. These hybrid compounds have this crystal structure but are also a complex combination of organic ammonia and methyl
chloride molecules
excitement surrounding
materials is the
frankly staggering
rate at which
developed.
Previously
new material
discovered
of research to reach an efficiency rate of even 10%.
Perovskite solar
only emerged
already clocked up conversions of
efficiency. This blistering rate of development is unprecedented in solar research. As a hybrid material, as well as boasting good efficiencies as with inorganic
materials,
perovskites can
of organic
materials&
liquid solution. This is what Professor David Lidzey’s group at the University of Sheffield has taken advantage
spraying the perovskite as a liquid coating onto a substrate material. This allows
manufactured
volumes and low
some questions
potential environmental
material (although
requirement
for lead) and how easily production can be up-scaled to a useful commercial size. As with organic solar cells, their long term stability is also highly questionable and they are particularly sensitive to moisture – a
drops of water can completely destroy
perovskite
panel module
for decades
most likely
no guarantee
it’s even possible. But what is for certain is that the potential of perovskite
staggering,
material’s promise can be realised it could completely revolutionise the capabilities of solar energy. 2.17. Photoelectrochemical Cell (PEC) Photo
electrochemical
promising method
production
solar energy,
limitations
significantly hindered their efficiency. The
objective of our research is
to improve
efficiencies
identifying
and engineering
corrosion-resistant
semiconductors
exhibit the optimal conduction and valence band edge alignment for PEC applications. PEC cells utilize light energy (photons) to perform
They consist of an anode and a cathode immersed in an electrolyte and connected in an
circuit. Typically, the anode
or the cathode consists of a semiconductor that absorbs sunlight, and
with energies
semiconductor
be absorbed
semiconductor, creating electron-hole
pairs which are split by the electric field in the space-charge region between the
semiconductor and the
electrolyte.
The electric field reflects the band bending of the conduction and valence band edges at the semiconductor
necessary to supply the free carriers to the appropriate electrode. The major advantages of photoelectrochemical devices are the
semiconductor-electrolyte junction
(the semiconductor
immersed into the electrolyte) and that the fact that thin, polycrystalline, semiconductor
of conversion
efficiency
crystal semiconductors.
significant
been made,
understanding
of photoelectrochemical
development
of systems with good conversion efficiency and stability, much
American Journal of Optics and Photonics ): 94-113
additional
development
before photoelectrochemical
considered for
conversion
offer several potential advantages over solid-state junction devices, including
fabrication,
flexibility,
to directly
high-efficiency PECs have been developed [55][56], their commercialization has
electrode materials that are cheap, efficient, and stable.
Fig. 17. The figure above illustrates how a PEC cell operates. Briefly, incoming sunlight excites free electrons near the surface of the silicon electrode. 2.18. Polymer Solar Cell The
organic solar
conjugated polymer. The basic principle behind both the polymer solar cell
same, namely
transformation
of electromagnetic
electrical
(a current
phenomenon
called the
photovoltaic
effect. This energy
conversion
possible with
semiconductors.
Semiconductors
of materials which
are in-between an insulator and a conductor. Silicon is
semiconductor and is
also the material that
is currently used in most
solar cells,
generation
that polymers
semiconductors
discovery which
MacDiarmid
Hideki Shirakawa received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for in the year
conjugated
being able
to transfer
doping with
it possible to prepare solar cells from polymers and thereby a new research
born.Polymer
solar cells have
for a long
traditional
both performance and stability. However, they have always had a potential ad that is their ability to be produced from solution.
coated, instead
deposition
generation
performances of 10%
demonstrated
cells.[57] The
considerably
plastic solar
been demonstrated.[58][59] In addition, large scale production of polymer
as demonstrated by for example the
freeOPV initiative.[60] In this section you can learn why we think polymer solar cells are
the future,
and how they
A polymer solar cell is a type of flexible solar cell
made with polymers,
structural
units, that
electricity
photovoltaic effect.
Polymer solar cells include
(also called
solar cells&).
They are one
film solar cell, others include the more stable amorphous silicon solar
commercial
a refined,
the material used in
manufacture
of integrated
circuits and computer
these silicon
production
process generated
alternative
technologies.Compared
to silicon-based
lightweight (which
autonomous
sensors), potentially
disposable
inexpensive
fabricate (sometimes
electronics),
flexible, customizable
potentially
have less adverse environmental impact. Polymer solar cells also
Askari Mohammad Bagher et al.:
Types of Solar Cells and Application
transparency,
suggesting applications in windows, walls, flexible electronics, etc.
Currently,
conventional silicon
the relative low
the polymer
solar cells
could play
and the huge jumps
these cells are
in terms of
efficiency
things better
nano-patterned
production technique
researchers
seven-fold
efficiency
as compared to the conventional sandwich-style construction. Listing
advantages
a very en however, polymer solar cells have a number of drawbacks. Firstly, while inorganic silicon-based solar cells may last on the order
polymer based devices struggle to last a year. Efficiency has
remained the
technology. With
polymer solar
efficiency
traditional technologies,
been reported.[61] For polymer solar cells to mature to the market, the
the technology
points. However,
weak points.
the unification
that three issues share
the same importance.[62][63] These three issues were defined
process, stability, and efficiency. The concept
for photovoltaics as presented by Professor Christoph J. Brabec, however
substituting
processability
the efficiency
special attention.
conversion efficiency
more mature silicon technology and to justify research
the field of polymer solar cells. As long as focus of research is not on all
application
the technology will remain slow. Within recent years the number of reports
processability and stability
has increased significantly.
Roll-to-roll
production
an established technique for producing polymer solar cells. And more and
more work has been published on the stability and degradation
OPV devices with respect to stability and operational lifetime. 2.19. Polycrystalline Solar Cell (Multi-Si) Polycrystalline
silicon, also
called polysilicon
poly-Si, is a high purity, polycrystalline form of silicon, used as a raw material by the solar photovoltaic and electronics industry. Polysilicon
metallurgical
silicon by a
chemical purification
Siemens process. This
distillation
silicon compounds,
decomposition
high temperatures. An emerging, alternative process of refinement uses
fluidized bed
photovoltaic industry
also produces
metallurgical-grade
(UMG-Si), using
metallurgical
purification processes.
electronics
industry, polysilicon contains impurity levels of less than one part per billion (ppb), while polycrystalline solar grade silicon (SoG-Si)
China, Germany, Japan, Korea and the United States, such as GCL-Poly, Wacker Chemie, OCI, and Hemlock Semiconductor, as well
headquartered
for most of the worldwide production of about 230,000 tonnes in 2013.[65] The polysilicon feedstock – large rods, usually broken into chunks of specific sizes and packaged in clean rooms before shipment
multicrystalline
or submitted
recrystallization
single crystall boules. The products are
then sliced into thin silicon wafers and
for the production of solar
cells, integrated circuits and other semiconductor devices.Polysilicon consists of
crystallites,
the material its typical metal
effect. While polysilicon and multisilicon
multicrystalline usually refers to crystalls larger
mm. Multicrystalline solar
common type
the fast-growing PV market and consume most of the worldwide produced polysilicon. About 5 tons of polysilicon is required to
manufacture
conventional
solar modules.[66]
Polysilicon
monocrystalline silicon and amorphous silicon.
Fig. 19. Solar Panels.
American Journal of Optics and Photonics ): 94-113
2.20. Quantum Dot Solar Cell A quantum
cell design
uses quantum
photovoltaic
It attempts
copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS) or CdTe. Quantum dots have bandgaps
energy levels
the bandgap is
by the choice
of material(s).
property makes quantum dots attractive
multi-junction solar cells, where a
variety of materials
to improve efficiency by
harvesting
spectrum. Quantum
semiconducting
been reduced below the size of the Exciton Bohr radius and due to quantum mechanics considerations, the electron energies that can exist within
them become
much alike energies
Quantum dots
&artificial atoms&.
levels are
changing their size,
underlying material
construction
techniques.[67]
wet chemistry
preparations,
accomplished
by varying the synthesis duration or temperature. The
dots desirable
implementations using
lead sulfide
frequencies
typically difficult to achieve with traditional.
Half of the solar energy reaching the Earth is in the infrared, most in the near infrared region.
quantum dot
as accessible as any other.[68] Moreover,
preparation. While suspended in a colloidal liquid form they can be easily handled throughout production, with a fumehood as the most complex equipment needed.
CQDs are typically
synthesized in small batches, but can be mass-produced. The dots can be distributed on a
substrate by
coating, either by
hand or in
Large-scale
production
use spray-on
roll-printing
dramatically
reducing module
construction
costly molecular
processes,
expensive fabrication
developed.
wet chemistry (colloidal
quantum dots
and subsequent solution processing.
Concentrated nanoparticle
are stabilized
hydrocarbon
the nanocrystals
solid, these solutions
down[clarification
long stabilizing ligands are replaced with short-chain crosslinkers. Chemically
engineering
nanocrystal
better passivate the nanocrystals and reduce detrimental trap states that
would curtail
performance
carrier recombination.
efficiency
of 7.0%.[69] In 2014 the use of iodide as a ligand that does not bond to oxygen was introduced. This maintains stable n- and p-type
absorption
efficiency,
which produced
power conversion
efficiency
to 8%.[70]
Solid-state solar cell
Fig. 20. Quantum dot solar cell. 2.21. Thin Film Solar Cell (TFSC) A
thin-film photovoltaic
cell (TFPV),
second generation
depositing
photovoltaic
substrate,
as glass, plastic or metal. Thin-film solar cells are commercially used
technologies,
telluride (CdTe),
diselenide
and amorphous and other thin-film silicon (a-Si, TF-Si). Film thickness varies from a
few nanometers (nm) to tens of
micrometers
thin-film&s
rival technology,
conventional,
first-generation
crystalline silicon solar cell (c-Si), that uses silicon wafers of up to 200 um. This allows thin film cells to be flexible, lower in weight, and
integrated photovoltaics
semi-transparent,
photovoltaic
glazing material
Other commercial
applications
panels (sandwiched
the world&s largest photovoltaic power stations. Thin-film has
always been
cheaper but
than conventional
technology.
significantly improved over the years, and lab cell efficiency for CdTe and CIGS
outperforming multicrystalline silicon, the dominant material currently used
Askari Mohammad Bagher et al.:
Types of Solar Cells and Application
systems.[71]:23,24
these enhancements, market-share of thin-film never reached more than
been declining
worldwide photovoltaic
production
thin-film technologies,
ongoing research
commercial
availability,
often classified as
emerging or
third generation
photovoltaic cells and include, organic, dye-sensitized, and polymer solar cells, as well as quantum dot, copper
sulfide, nanocrystal, micromorph and perovskite solar cells.
Fig. 21. Structure of thin film solar cells. 2.22. Black Silicon Solar Cells Black
solar cells
are similar
crystalline
silicon solar cells. Really similar. The difference is that black silicon solar cells are
so that they appear
be black on the surface. Why is that a big deal? Think of wearing a black T-shirt on
summer day. The black
color tends
to absorb more sunlight, which translates to an uncomfortable summer afternoon for you, but more energy gathered for a
cell. It’s
attractive
much sunlight but still want to
make good use of
the light they do receive.
to undercut
efficiency
power, however.
manufactured
a standard piece of silicon. Modifying the material in this
way makes it a lot less reflective, allowing solar cells that use it to trap light even when it&s coming
from very low angles. This could
cells throughout
particularly
higher latitudes.
be cheaper,
they don&t
antireflection coatings
used by many
other types
cells. The main
issue that
has stifled the progress of black silicon cells is something known as carrier recombination.
When a photon hits a silicon
atom inside a solar cell, the excess energy frees up an electron that is
electricity. Using
Black Silicon
as substrate allows fabricating Black Silicon solar cells. For the Black Silicon laser process, the laser pulse shape was altered by optical laser pulse shaping equipment. With these shaped laser
pulses, less
silicon during
interaction.
facilitates minimizing
recombination
laser structuring itself
simultaneously forms the
side texture and
also modifies the raw silicon material enabling it to absorb the IR portion
sun spectra.
Using Black Silicon
substrate allows
solar cells.
Black Silicon
by optical
equipment.
shaped laser
pulses, less
silicon during
interaction.
facilitates minimizing
recombination
laser structuring itself
simultaneously forms the
side texture and
also modifies the raw silicon material enabling it to absorb the IR portion of the sun spectra. After laser structuring, evaporated front contacts and a screen printed rear contact are deposited. An
necessary,
only formed
the femtosecond
is displayed.
emitter formation
total number
significantly
can potentially
production
cells display
of 38mA/cm2
increased absorption of IR light. We achieve an efficiency of 4.5% with no passivation layers applied. The previously reported record efficiency
University
a laser processed Black Silicon solar cell.
Fig. 22. The Future of Black Silicon. Occasionally, though, the electron simply recombines with a silicon atom, effectively wasting the energy provided by the photon. Recombination is proportional to the surface area of the
silicon raise
freed electrons are
this way. Now, a team
of researchers led
get around the issue, and in so doing, it has increased the record efficiency
percentage points,
performance
American Journal of Optics and Photonics ): 94-113
however better than that as
the researchers were also
able to show
from lower
percent more
efficiency over
the course
day.Savin and
colleagues
put recombination
by applying
film, acting
and electronic
the nanostructures. They also integrated all the metal contacts on the back side of the cell, for added absorption. These
the freed up electrons recombined, as opposed to the previous 50 percent.
new cell design
is however likely
not pushing this technology
limit just
since it made
silicon. According to the
scientists, a better
choice of materials or
a better cell structure would push efficiencies even further. The near-term goal for the researchers is to apply their technology to
structures,
multi-crystalline
in particular – but also, Savin tells us, other devices like screens and photodetectors. 3. Result and Discussion Solar
combination of
is produced
This energy
reaches the earth where human collects it through solar collectors and convert it into any desirable form of energy. According to an assumption
powerful enough to replace the need of electricity that we get from 650 barrels of oil per year. Some of Applications of solar enery 1. Power
conventional
non-renewable
can rotate
to produce electricity. But with application of solar energy heat
and rotate turbines. To convert sunlight into electricity solar panels,
photoelectric
technologies
thermoelectric technologies etc are used. 2. Homes: Use
increasing in
homes as well.
Residential
appliances
electricity generated
solar energy
running solar
in homes. Through photovoltaic cell installed
on the roof of the house energy is captured and stored on
batteries to
throughout
different purposes. In this ways expenditure on energy is cutting down by home users. 3. Commercial use: on roofs of different buildings we can find glass PV modules or any other kind of solar panel. These
electricity
to different offices or other
of building in
reliable manner.
sun, convert it into electricity and
allow offices to use their own electrical power for different purposes. 4. Ventilation system: at many places solar energy is used for ventilation
running bath fans, floor
buildings.
run almost every time in a building to control moisture, and smell
the kitchen.
It can add heavy amount
on the utility bills,
to cut down these bills solar energy is used for ventilation purposes. 5. Power
improving ventilation
your homes
can also help in circulating
any building. You can connect
water circulate throughout your home. 6. Swimming
for kids and
seasons. But during
it is tough to
these pools
minimum power usage. Solar energy can help many in this matter as well. You can add a solar blanket in the pool that will keep the water hot with energy generated from sunlight. Besides
heating system with solar hot water heating panels. 7. Solar
day lighting,
These lights store natural
sun in day time
and then convert this
energy into
electricity to
night time.
form local power plants. 8. Solar Cars: it is an electrical vehicle which is recharged form solar energy or sunlight. Solar panels are used on this
into electrical
electrical
in batteries used with the car, so that in night time as well we can drive these vehicles. 9. Remote
applications:
taking benefit
schools, community
halls, and
clinics can
panel and batteries
use electric power. Next-generation
infinitely
mosre useful
discovered
structure capable
of transporting
electrical charges
times higher
previously measured.
Most solar cells
currently use
inefficiencies
the material have led scientists to develop carbon nanotubes that can
implemented
absorption capabilities
the nanotubes have
been randomly
placed within
solar cells in
suboptimal
structures
to arrange.
generation of
solar panels
called perovskite
into household
electricity
before, according to a study from Briain&s Exeter University. Super-thin, custom-colored panels attached
a building&s windows
&holy grail&
and African countries,
Senthilarasu Sundaram, one
authors of the study,
Foundation.
those countries
grail: they can both
windows and at the
time produce electricity. With a thickness measured in billionths of a meter,
Askari Mohammad Bagher et al.:
Types of Solar Cells and Application
solar panels made of perovskite will be more than 40 percent cheaper
those commercially
panels, those
perovskite
solar spectrum and work in various atmospheric conditions, rather than only
direct sunlight.
&This type of
material for
solar cells works in diffused conditions much, much better than the other types
cells,& said
Sundaram. &It
be 100 percent, but it
will be much
what we have
now.& Researchers have already tested the material in the Americas, Asia,
commercial products used to generate solar power, such as silicon or thin-film
technologies,
are processed
using vacuum-based
techniques, the
study said.
production
perovskite
very straightforward, but researchers still have to test the
material under different conditions to better understand its properties, before
on industrial-scale
production,
it said. The photovoltaic (PV) energy market has been growing because
government
energy production and CO2 emission controls, and the International Energy
the world&s biggest source of electricity by 2050.
References [1] http://www.chemistryexplained.com/Ru-Sp/Solar-Cells.html [2] http://www.solarstik.com/stikopedia/stiktm-u [3] Ciesielskia, Peter N; Frederick M. Hijazib, Amanda M. Scott, Christopher J. Faulkner, Lisa Beard, Kevin Emmett, Sandra J. Rosenthal,
2010). &photosystem
phtoelectrochemical cells&. Biosource
Technology
. doi:10.1016/j.biortech..
October 2013. [4] Yehezkeli,
Tel-Vered,
Wasserman, Alexander
Nechushtai, Itamar
&Integrated photosytem
photoelectrochemical
communication. doi:10.1038/ncomms1741. [5] Wohlgemuth
concentrator solar
Photovoltaic
Specialists Conference. -277. [6] &Publications,
Presentations,
Cadmium Telluride&. National Renewable Energy Laboratory. [7] K.
Zweibel, J.
Fthenakis,
Plan&, Scientific
cheapest example
technologies
and prices
16?/kWh with US Southwest sunlight. [8] Further
competitiveness:
Power Lightens
Technology&,
Scientific American, April 2008. [9] Peng et al. (2013). &Review on life cycle assessment of energy payback
and greenhouse
photovoltaic systems&.
Sustainable
19: 255–274. doi:10.1016/j.rser.. [10] V. Fthenakis and H. C. Kim. (2010). &Life-cycle uses of water in
electricity
generation&.
Sustainable Energy
2039–2048. doi:10.1016/j.rser.. [11] de Wild-Scholten, Mariska (2013). &Energy payback time and carbon
of commercial
photovoltaic
Solar Energy
296–305. doi:10.1016/j.solmat.. [12] Fthenakis,
Vasilis M.
(2004). &Life
impact analysis
of cadmium
production&
and Sustainable
303–334. doi:10.1016/j.rser.. Archived from the original on 23 September 2014. [13] Werner, Jürgen H. (2 November
2011). &Toxic Substances
In Photovoltaic
postfreemarket.net.
of Photovoltaics,
University
Stuttgart,
21st International
Photovoltaic
Engineering Conference
the original
23 September 2014. [14] &Water
Solubility of
Cadmium Telluride
a Glass-to-Glass Sealed
Laboratory,
and AMELIO Solar, Inc. 2011. [15] Herman Trabish, The Lowdown on
the Safety of First
Solar&s CdTe Thin Film, greentechmedia.com March 19, 2012 [16] Robert
Thin-Film?, September 25, 2008 [17] Supply
Constraints
Energy Laboratory [18] Fraunhofer
Photovoltaics
pages 18,19 [19] http://www.solar-facts-and-advice.com/amorphous-silicon.html [20] http://www.iea.org
&Technology
Solar Photovoltaic Energy& (PDF). IEA. Archived from the original on 7 October 2014. Retrieved 7 October 2014. [21] Fraunhofer ISE and NREL (January 2015). &Current Status of Concentrator
Photovoltaic
Technology&
(PDF). Archived
original on
25 April 2015. [22] &DOE
Technologies
Review& (PDF).
department
10 February 2011. [23] Wan,
Sensitized
University
of Alabama Department of Chemistry, p. 3 [24] &Dye-Sensitized
European Institute for Energy Research, 30 June 2006 [25] Tributsch, H
&Dye sensitization solar
a critical assessment
Coordination
Chemistry Reviews 248 (13–14): 1511. doi:10.1016/j.ccr.. [26] Moss,
the Semiconductor Industry. Springer. ISBN 0-216-92005-1. [27] Milliron,
Alivisatos,
(2005). &Hybrid Organic–Nanocrystal Solar Cells&. MRS
Bulletin 30: 41–44. doi:10.1557/mrs2005.8.
American Journal of Optics and Photonics ): 94-113
[28] Shaheen,
E. (2005). &Organic–Based Photovoltaics&. MRS Bulletin 30: 10. doi:10.1557/mrs2005.2. [29] Saunders,
M.L. (2008).
&Nanoparticle-polymer photovoltaic cells&. Advances in Colloid and Interface Science 138
doi:10.1016/j.cis..
PMID . [30] Sariciftci,
Smilowitz,
F. (1993).
&Semiconducting
and buckminsterfullerene
acceptor):
photoinduced
electron transfer and
heterojunction devices&. Synthetic Metals
59 (3): 333–352. doi:10.79(93)91166-Y. [31] Ginger, D.S.; Greenham, N.C. (1999). &Photoinduced electron transfer
conjugated
nanocrystals&. Physical
624–629. Bibcode:1999PhRvB..5910622G. doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.59.10622. [32] Shaw,
&Exciton Diffusion
Measurements
Poly(3-hexylthiophene)&. Advanced
. doi:10.1002/adma.. [33] Michael
C Verbunt,
Nadkarni, Suresh
Nedumbamana, Brenda
Hoeks. Promising fluorescent dye for solar energy conversion based on a perylene perinone. Applied Optics 50(2):163-169, 2011. [34] Michael G Debije, Paul P C Verbunt, Brenda C Rowan, Bryce S
Richards and
from luminescent
concentrator
waveguides.
Optics 47(36):, 2008. [35] K
Theoretical comparison of cylindrical and square-planar luminescent solar concentrators.
Optics 88(2):285-290, 2007. [36] Reisfeld,
1978). &Planar solar
concentrator
uranyl-doped glass&. Nature 274: 144–145. doi:10.a0. [37] Reisfeld, R Kalisky, Yehoshua (1980). &Improved planar solar
holmium glasses&. Nature 283 (5744): 281–282. doi:10.a0. [38] W.Heywang,
K.H.Zaininger,
semiconductor material,
technology, P.Siffert, E.F.Krimmel eds., Springer Verlag, 2004. [39] Green,
Generation
Photovoltaics: Advanced Solar Energy Conversion. Springer. p. 65. [40] &New
Innovations
cell record&. NewSouth
Innovations. . Retrieved
2012-06-23.[dead link] [41] &Solar Junction Breaks Concentrated Solar World Record with 43.5% Efficiency&. Cnet.com. [42] &Sharp
Concentrator
Efficiency
Record, 43.5%& [43] N.
Poole, (2009).
&Prospects
Nanostructure-Based
for Manufacturing Future Generations of Photovoltaic
Modules&. International
Photoenergy
1. doi:10.4059. [44] Eperon,
Menelaou, Christop
Michael B.;
Snaith, Henry
J. (2014).
&Formamidinium
trihalide:
broadly tunable
perovskite
heterojunction
solar cells&.
Environmental
982. doi:10.1039/C3EE43822H. [45] Noel,
A Wehrenfennig,
Haghighirad, Amir-A
Sadhanala,
Pathak, Sandeep K.; Johnston, Michael B.; Petrozza, Ann Herz, Laura M.; Snaith, Henry J. (1 May 2014). &Lead-free organic–inorganic tin halide perovskites for photovoltaic applications&. Energy
Environmental
3061. doi:10.076K. [46] &Civil Engineering (May 13, 2014)&. [47] &Solar Reviews (May 05, 2014)&. [48] &Industry
Trends.& Is
Perovskite the
Solar Cells? N.p., 06 Dec. 2013. Web. 21 Jan. 2015. [49] Feng,
&Perovskite
Solar Cells.& Rutgers University. 07 Mar. 2014. Lecture. [50] Snaith, Henry J.
&Perovskites:
The Emergence of
New Era for
Low-Cost, High-Efficiency
Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters4.21 (2013): . Web. [51] Jeon, Nam Joong,
Young Chang
&Solvent Engineering
High-performance
Inorganic–organic Hybrid Perovskite Solar Cells.& Nature Materials 13 (2014): 897-903. Web. 21 Jan. 2015. [52] Yuanyuan
Zhou, Mengjin
Yang, Wenwen Wu,
L. Vasiliev,
&Room-Temperature Crystallization of
Hybrid-Perovskite
Thin Films
Solvent-Solvent
Extraction
High-Performance
J. Mater. Chem. A (2015), DOI: 10.1039/C5TA00477B [53] Chen,
Hsin-Sheng Duan,
Wang, Yongsheng
and Yang Yang. &Planar Heterojunction Perovskite Solar Cells via Vapor-Assisted
American Chemical Society 136.2 (2014): 622-25. Web. [54] Liu,
Snaith. &Efficient
Heterojunction
Perovskite
by Vapour Deposition.& Nature501.): 395-98. Web. [55] Gratzel, M. Nature, 414, 338-344 (2001). [56] Khaselev & Turner. Science, 280, 425-427 (1998). [57] Licht, S. J. Phys. Chem. 105,
(2001). [58] Nowotny, J and T. Bak. Int. J of Hydrogen Economy, 30, 521-544 (2005). [59] Green
Photovoltaics:
and Applications 2/pip.2163 [60] Gevorgyan
Cells 6/j.solmat. [61] Krebs
Photovoltaics:
and Applications 2/pip.794
Askari Mohammad Bagher et al.:
Types of Solar Cells and Application
[62] Krebs
Technology
2013 10.1002/ente. [63] Green
Photovoltaics:
and Applications 2/pip.2163 [64] Jorgensen et. al., Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 2008 10.1016/j.solmat. [65] Krebs
2009 10.1016/j.solmat. [66] Brabec
Energy Materials
Cells 2004 10.1016/j.solmat. [67] Baskoutas,
&Size-dependent
of Applied
Physics 99:
Bibcode:2006JAP....99a3708B. doi:10.8502. [68] H.
(PDF). Advanced
515–522. doi:10.1002/adma.. [69] Ip,
Sjo Voznyy,
Zhitomirsky,
R Levina, L Rollny, Lisa R.; Carey, Graham
H.; Fischer, A
Z Labelle, André J.; Chou, Kang W Amassian, A Sargent, Edward H. (2012). &Hybrid passivated colloidal quantum dot solids&.
Nanotechnology
577–582. Bibcode:2012NatNa...7..577I.
doi:10.1038/nnano.. PMID . [70] Mitchell,
nanoparticles
bring cheaper, lighter solar
outdoors&. Rdmag.com.
Retrieved . [71] &Photovoltaics
Fraunhofer
2014. Archived