英语开头写作_四六级经验交流_梦幻网络
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文章的开头一般来说应尽量做到开门见山，用简单明白的叙述引出文章的话题，使读者了解文章要谈论什么，一下于引" />
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英语开头写作
一篇文章通常可分为三个部分，即开头、正文和结尾。这三个部分安排是否得体，直接影响到文章的质量。
文章的开头一般来说应尽量做到开门见山，用简单明白的叙述引出文章的话题，使读者了解文章要谈论什么，一下于引起读者的兴趣。
常见的开头形式大致有以下几种：
1．开门见山，揭示主题
文章一开头，，就交待清楚文章的主题是什么。如&How I Spent My Vacation&(我怎样度假)的开头是：
I Spent my last vacation happily．
下面是题为&Honesty&(谈诚实)一文中的开头：
Honesty is one of the best virtues．An honest man is always trusted and respected．On the contrary, one who tells lies is regarded as a &liar&，and is looked upon by honest people．
2．交代人物、事情、时间或环境开头
在文章的开头，先把人物、事件和环境交待清楚。例如&A Trip to Jinshan& (去金山旅游)的开头：
The day before yesterday my class went on a bus trip to Jinshan. The bus ride there took three hours. The long trip made us very tired, but the sight of the beautiful sea refreshed us.
3. 回忆性的开头
用回忆的方法来开头。例如&A Trip to the Taishan Mountain&(泰山游)的开头是：
I remember my first trip to the Taishan Mountain as if it were yesterday.
4．概括性的开头
即对要在文章中叙述的人或事先作一个概括性的介绍。如&The Happiness of Reading Books&(读书的快乐)的开头：
People often say that gold and silver are the most valuable things in the world. But I say that to read books is more valuable than anything else, because books give us knowledge and knowledge gives us power.
5．介绍环境式的开头
即开头利用自然景物或自然环境引出要介绍的事物。如&An Accident&(一场事故)的开头是:
It was a rainy and windy morning. The sky was gloomy, the temperature was low, and the street was nearly empty. I was on my way back to school. Suddenly, a speeding car came round the corner.
6．交待写作目的的开头。
在文章的一开头就交待写作目的，如通过文章要表扬谁，批评谁，或说明一个什么问题等。如 &Pollution Control& (控制污染)的开头：In this article I shall draw your attention to the subject of pollution control.
的文章的正文
文章的正文是由若干段落组成的，段落通常由几个或者更多的句子组成，有时候一个句子也能成段。
文章的正文应以文章的开头为线索，具体地叙述、说明或论证文章的主题。文章不论长短，每个段落都必须为主题服务。像和议这一类的文章，一个主题还常分成几个小主题，每个小主题要用一个段落处理，另起一段时，应是一层新的意思。每一段的开头，要放一个表示段落小主题的主题句，这样可使文章条理化，易于阅读，便于读者抓住主题。段内的所有句子应围绕主题句的意义加以阐述或论证，为中心思想服务。句子之间应衔结自然，有条不紊，而且还要合乎逻辑，段落中不能出现任何与主题无关的句子；写作比较重视主题句的作用，缺少它段落意义就会含糊不清。主题句也可放在段落的中间和末尾等部位，但对初学者来说，以放在段首为好。见下列这篇题为&How to Be a Good Student& (怎样做个好学生)的文章：
We students are the builders and masters of the country. It is important for us to know how to be a good student.
A good student, I think, should be diligent in his studies. The more he studies, the more he will increase his knowledge. Without enough knowledge, we cannot make great contributions to the modernization of our country.
To take care of one's own body is another important thing for good student to do. Anyone, who hasn't got a strong body, can do nothing for his country, even if he has much knowledge. There was a man, who, when he was student, studied hard but neglected his health. No sooner did he come to serve the country than he died of poor health. From this we may see that to have a strong body is really very important for a student.
Lastly, to cultivate one's own virtue is most important. Virtue is the essence
of a noble and good character. It will greatly help one to be useful and his country heart and soul. When learned people go astray, they do more harm than good to society. We should draw lessons from this.
这篇文章的第一段引出了文章的主题，第二、第三和第四段则是文章的正文，每&段的第一句即是段落的主题句，它们既支持了文章中心的观点和思想，同时又概括了全段的意思。在同一段落中，其余的句子都围绕主题句所表示的中心展开，同时句子间的衔结也很自然；各层的意思都很连贯。
分段是文章组织上重要的一步，但如果写的题目范围很小，那就无须再将题目分成小的主题，并分入各个段落去阐述了。像一篇简短的评论；某一事情的简短记载，某一个想法的说明，对一个人物或一件事情的简要叙述或说明等，就可以只用一个段落来表现主题。
在中，段的结构有时可以很简单，不需要有主题句，叙事一气呵成，中途没有停顿。段与段之所以分开，只是为了起修辞作用，以便把某一细节置于显著的地位。
某些测试用的表达题，在题目中就已经说明只需要根据。所给的提示写一个段落，而不是一篇文章。对于这一类的写作，就可以予以简洁的处理，并不是非要扩充成一篇有头有尾的完整文章。
下面这篇题为&Weekend Homework&(谈周末作业)的短文，就是用一个段落来论述问题和表达观点的。
Usally Saturday night is the time for students to get back to their desks and do their weekend homework. Six school days are enough for the students who have many other interests. I think weekend homework should not be given. With homework arranged for Saturday night and the whole of Sunday, when can he find time to help around the house, play a game of football or see a good film, or just relax? In fact weekend homework is usually put off until Sunday night. As a result our homework is done very poorly and we achive no results. If there were no homework on weekends, students would go to school on Monday well rested, willing to work. Teachers, don't you agree?
中有哪些基本句式?
句子看上去纷繁庞杂，但仔细观察不外乎五个基本句式。这五个基本句式可以演变出多种复杂的句子。换言之，绝大多数句子都是由这五个基本句式生成的。这五个基本句式如下：
S十V主谓结构
S十V十F主系表结构
S十V十O主谓宾结构
S十V十O1十O2 主谓双宾结构
S十V十O十C 主谓宾补结构
说明：S＝主语；V＝谓语；P＝表语；O＝宾语；O1＝间接宾语；O2＝直接宾语；C＝宾语补足语
五个基本句式详细解释如下：
1．S十V句式
在此句式中，V是不及物动词，又叫自动词(vi．)。例如：
He runs quickly．
他跑得快。
They listened carefully．
他们听得很仔细。
He suffered from cold and hunger．
他挨冻受饿。
China belongs to the third world country．
中国属于第三世界国家。
The gas has given out．
煤气用完了。
My ink has run out．
我的钢笔水用完了。
2．S十V十P句式
在此句式中，V是系动词(link v．)，常见的系动词有：look，seem，appear，sound，feel，taste，smell，grow，get，fall ill/asleep，stand/sit still，become，turn等。例如：
He is older than he looks．
他比看上去要老。
He seen interested in the book．
他似乎对这本书感兴趣。
The story sounds interesting．
这个听起来有趣。
The desk feels hard．
书桌摸起来很硬。
The cake tastes nice．
饼尝起来很香。
The flowers smell sweet and nicc．
花闻起来香甜。
You have grown taller than before．
你长得比以前高了。
He has suddenly fallen ill．
他突然病倒了。
He stood quite still．
他静静地站看。
He becomes a teacher when he grew up．
他长大后当了教师。
He could never turn traitor to his country．
他永远不会背叛他的祖国。
注意：有些动词同时也是及物动词，可构成SVO句式，例如：
He looked me up and down．
他上下打量我。
He reached his hand to feel the elephant．
他伸出手来摸象。
They are tasting the fish．
他们在品尝鱼。
They grow rice in their home town．
他们在家乡种水稻。
He's got a chair to sit on．
他有椅子坐。
Please turn the sentence into ．
请把这个句于泽成。
3．S十V十O句式
在此句式中，V是及物动词(vt．)，因此有宾语。例如：
I saw a film yesterday．
我昨天看了一部电影。
Have you read the story?
你读过这个吗?
They found their home easily．
他们很容易找到他们的家。
They built a house last year．
他们去年建了一所房子。
They've put up a factory in the village．
他们在村里建了一座工厂。
They have taken good care of the children．
这些孩子他们照看得很好。
You should look after your children well．
你应该好好照看你的孩子。
4．S十V十O1十O2句式
在此句式中，V是带有双宾语的及物动词。常见的须带双宾语的动词有give，ask，bring，offer，send，pay，lend，show，tell，buy，get；rob，warn等。例如：
He gave me a book/a book to me．
他给我一本书。
He brought me a pen/a pen to me．
他带给我一枝钢笔。
He offered me his seat/his seat to me．
注意下边动词改写后介词的变化：
Mother bought me a book/a book for me.
妈妈给我买了一本书。
He got me a chair/a chair for me．
他给我弄了一把椅子。
Please do me a favor/a favor for me．
请帮我一下。
He asked me a question/a question of me．
他问我个问题。
注意，下边动词只有一种说法：
They robbed the old man of his money．
他们抢了老人的钱。
He's warned me of the danger.
他警告我注意危险。
The doctor has cured him of his disease．
医生治好了他的病。
We must rid the house of th erats．
我们必须赶走屋里的老鼠。
They deprived him of his right to speak．
他们剥夺了他说话的权利。
5．S十V十O十C句式
在此句式中，V是有宾语补足语的及物动词。常带宾语补足语的词有形容词、副词、介词短语、名词、不定式、现在分词、过去分词。
常见的可接宾语补足语的动词很多，哪些动词可接哪几种形式作宾补，须根据动词的惯用法而定，不能统而概论。请看下面的例子。They made the girl angry．
他们使这个女孩生气了。
They found her happy that day．
他们发现那天她很高兴。
I found him out．
我发现他出去了。
I saw him in．
我见他在家。
They saw a foot mark in the sand．
他们发现沙地上有脚印。
They named the boy Charlie．
他们给这个男孩起名为查理。
I saw him come in and go out．
我见他进来又出去。
They felt the car moving fast．
他们感到汽车行驶得很快。
I heard the glass broken just now．
我刚才听到玻璃碎了。
He found the doctor of study closed to him．
他发现研究所的大门对他关闭了。
怎样写好段落（一）
段落是文章的缩影。写好了段落，就能比较成功地写出较好的文章。经过中学基础阶段的学习之后，大学的写作重点就从选词造句转移到了联句成段和联段成篇上。进行段落层次上的写作训练，是写好英章的关键一环。下面介绍的是段落结构。
　　段落（ paragraph ）是由表达单一中心思想（controlling idea or central idea ）的一组句子（包括主题句 topic sentence,推展句supporting sentences及结论句concluding sentence）构成，是文章结构的基本独立单位。本讲我们将就主题句和中心思想这两个方面展开讨论。
　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　主题句与推展句
1． 主题句
　　主题句（topic sentence）是表达段落主题的句子。它用以概括段落大意，要求全段其他文字都围绕它展开。请看下例：
　　My mother has passed along to me certain rules for getting along with others. Don' they will think you don't love them. Don't they will think themselves victimized. Don' they will think you are a tiresome mate. Don't
they will think you are not friendly. My mother's rules, in fact, can be summed up in two words: Don't argue.
　　主题句中提出的 &certain rules& 指的是什么？展开句中通过四个 &Don't argue --& 逐一加以交代。从结构来看，这是一个比较典型的段落，它包括了主题句，推展句和结论句（即本段中的末句）。　　
1．1 主题句的位置
　　主题句通常放在段落的开端，其特点是开门见山地摆出问题，然后加以详细说明。其作用是使文章的结构更清晰，更具说服力，便于读者迅速地把握主题和想象全段的内容。主题句可以放在段中起到承上启下的作用，或放在段尾起概括全段的作用。但初学者比较难于掌握，因而在四级中，考生应尽量采用将主题句放在段落开头的写作手法。
例1: Our life today depends very much on energy. In towns and in villages, on farms and in factories, machines have made life easier than it used to be. The machines use energy, and energy is needed for heating, lighting, communications, carrying goods -- everything. Factories and industrial plants use a great deal of energy to make the things that we use and buy and sell. 这段文字所讲的主要是能源问题。第一句就概括性地提出&我们目前的生活很大程度上依赖于能源&。而随后出现的三句都是具体事例，对第一句进行说明和论述。我们可以断定第一句为该段的主题句（斜体部分）。
　例2: （主题句）No one can avoid being influenced by advertisements. （推展句1）Much as we may pride ourselves on our good taste, we are no longer free to choose the things we want, for advertising exerts a subtle influence on us. （推展句2）In their efforts to persuade us to buy this or that product, advertisers have made a close study of human nature and have classified all our little weakness.
　　以上这段由三句话组成。第一句是主题句，直截了当指出无人不受广告影响这个主题，接着列举两个推展句对其补充和支持，指出我们已无法自由选择所需的商品，理由是广告商已仔细研究了我们的心理，并完全掌握了我们的弱点。句子衔接自然，步步紧扣主题。
1．2 如何写好主题句中的关键词
　　段落的主题句对主题的限定主要是通过句中的关键词来表现的。关键词要尽量写得具体些。对&具体&的要求包括两个方面：一是要具体到能控制和限制段落的发展；二是要具体到能说明段落发展的方法。准确地把握关键词是清楚地表达段落主题、写好段落主题句的重要前提之一。在上面的例1，例2中，主题句的关键词分别为：depends no one can avoid being influenced. 我们再看下列例句：
　　原句1: He can fix a bicycle himself.
　　斜体部分应为主题句中的关键词。但它只是限制了段落发展的部分内容，并没有告诉读者该用哪种方法展开，是用因果关系法还是用分类法？
　　修正：He can fix a bicycle himself in several simple steps. 　
　　修正：There are several reasons why he can fix a bicycle himself.
　　原句2: She tries to improve her looks.
　　斜体部分应为主题句中的关键词。她试着改变她面容的理由是什么？或者她采取什么方法来改善呢？我们无法从关键词中清楚得知。
　　修正：She tries many ways to improve her looks. 　
　　修正：There are some reasons why she tries to improve her looks。
1.3 如何写好主题句的中心思想
　　主题句由两部分组成，即主题(topic)和中心思想（controlling idea）。中心思想的作用是导向(control)和制约(limit)。我们前面谈到的关键词就反映了中心思想。所谓导向就是规定段落的发展脉络，所谓制约就是限制主题的覆盖范围，两者不可分割。没有导向，内容就会离题或偏题；没有制约，内容就可能超出一个段落所能容纳的范围。
　　对于初学写作的人来说，&导向&的重要性容易理解，但如果由他们自己来构思一个主题句，就可能忽视&制约&这一面。例如：
　　There are two ways in which one can own a book. The first is the property right you establish by paying for it, just as you have made it a part of yourself and the best way to make yourself a part of it is by writing in it.
　　本段的主题句如果没有in which 引出的定语从句，那么two ways 不仅不能起制约作用，而且也不能起导向作用，句子本身读起来也就使人觉得欠缺点什么。
　　Exercise is beneficial to your heart. A 22-year study was conducted by doctors in California. They found that people who work at physical jobs experience fewer heart attacks than other people. These active people work all the time at moderate speeds, their daily routine gives them an adequate amount of exercise and helps them stay in shape.
　　&Exercise is beneficial&这是毫无疑义的。但主题句中如不加上&to your heart&来加以 control 和 limit，那就流于空泛。
　　因此，紧紧把握主题句中controlling idea的导向和制约作用，是短文写作成功关键之一。
2.1 主要推展句
　　主要推展句(major supporting statement)的主要特点是：围绕段落主题句展开的每一个推展句本身都不要求作进一步的说明或证明，句与句之间的关系是相互独立又是互相连接的。
　　例1：(主题句) There are several factors affecting climate. (推展句1)One factor is the mount of sunlight received. (推展句2)Altitude, or the height above sea level, also determines climate. (推展句3)The oceans have an effect on the climate of adjacent land. (推展句4)In addition, climate is influenced by the general circulation of the atmosphere.
　　主题句指出影响气候的几个因素。然后用四个扩展句说明四种因素。第一种是太阳光的接收量，第二种是海拔高度，第三句和第四句分别是海洋和大气环流因素。
2.2 次要推展句
　　次要推展句(minor supporting statement)是指对主要推展句作进一步的事实分析和举例说明。它从属于某一个或某几个推展句。
　　例2：(主题句)I don't teach because teaching is easy for me. (主要推展句1)Teaching is the most difficult of the various ways I have attempted to earn my living: mechanic, carpenter, writer. (主要推展句2)For me, teaching is a red-eye, sweaty-palm, sinking-stomach profession. (次要推展句1)Red-eye, because I never feel ready to teach no matter how late I stay up preparing. (次要推展句2)Sweaty-palm, because I'm always nervous before I enter the classroom, sure that I will be found out for the fool that I am. (次要推展句3)Sinking-stomach, because I leave the classroom an hour later convinced that I was even more boring than usual.
　　从属于主要推展句2的三个次要推展句起着解释说明作用，分别解释red-eye, sweaty-palm, sinking-stomach的含义，这就更加形象生动地证明了 &teaching is not easy& 这个主题。
2．3 主要推展句与次要推展句的关系
　　主要推展句与次要推展句的关系(relation)基本可以遵循下面的&三部分&(three-part)规则。
　　1〕每个主要推展句都应该是对主题句中表示主要思想的关键词的直接、明确的说明。
　　2〕每个次要推展句都应该说明它的主要推展句。
　　3〕含有讨论说明或分析的问题通常既要有主要推展素材，又要有次要推展素材。
2．4 写好推展句的方法
　　主题句及关键词确定后，开始选择和主题有关的信息和素材。实质上，针对关键词测试每一个所选择的素材就是一个分类的过程。有一种常用的方法就是句子展开前加以设问，然后解答，即设问－解答(why-because)的方法。下面我们通过举例来看一看这种分类过程是如何完成的。例3：
　　假设 (suppose) Topic sentence:
is an international language?
　　设问(why) Why can we say
is an international language?
　　解答(because)
　　Because:
is spoken by pilots and airport control operators on all the airways of the world.
　　Because: Over 70 percent of the world's mail is written in .
　　Because: More than 60 percent of the world's radio programs are in .
　　Because: Pakistan was once one of the British colonies.
　　Because: Many members of the International Language Society are selected from -spoken countries.
　　从上面可以看出，最初的三个推展句是和关键词an international language一致的。第四句和主题句不统一，尽管第四句会成为另一主题句(Many Pakistanis speak )很好的推展句。第五句说服力不强。
　　当然，在写成段落时，没有必要在每个句子开头写上 &because&，但是，在动笔展开句子时，头脑里要想着这个词，这种检验方法能帮助你把注意力集中在某个重心，围绕主题思想层层展开。
　　上面我们讨论了主要推展句的一种展开方法。而展开次要推展句的方法与主要推展句类似，这里我们就不再复述了。 　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　
段落发展的手段及结尾段的写法
　　在上一讲我们讲了主题句，推展句的写法；这一讲我们要进一步来谈一谈段落发展的几种手段以及结尾段的写法。
　　段落发展的几种手段
怎样写好段落（二）
1． 列举法(details)
　　作者运用列举法，是通过列举一系列的论据对topic sentence中摆出的论点进行广泛、全面地陈述或解释，列举的顺序可以按照所列各点内容的相对重要性、时间、空间等进行。
　　Yesterday was one of those awful days for me when everything I did went wrong. First, I didn't hear my alarm clock and arrived late for work. Then, I didn't read my diary properly and forgot to get to an important meeting with my boss. During the coffee break, I dropped my coffee cup and spoilt my new skirt. At lunch time, I left my purse on a bus and lost all the money that was in it. After lunch, my boss was angry because I hadn't gone to the meeting. Then I didn't notice a sign on a door that said &Wet Paint& and so I spoilt my jacket too. When I got home I couldn't get into my flat because I had left my key in my office. So I broke a window to get in and cut my hand.
　　根据本段主题句中的关键词组everything I did went wrong，作者列举了8点内容，分别由first, then, during the coffee break, after lunch time等连接词语引出，使得该文条理清楚、脉络分明、内容连贯。
　　常用于列举法的过渡连接词有：for one thing , for another, finally, besides, moreover, one another , still another, first, second, also等。
2. 举例法(example)
　　作者通过举出具体事例来阐述、说明主题句的内容，严格地讲，举例法也是列举法的一种，它们的区别在于：列举法侧重罗列事实，所列事实力求全面；而举例法侧重通过举出典型事例来解释作者观点，且事例可多可少。
　　我们来看下面这个用举例法展开的段落。
　　There are many different forms of exercises to suit different tastes. For example, those who enjoy competitive sports may take up ball games. For another example, if they prefer to exercise alone, they can have a run or take a walk in the morning or in the evening. Besides, people can go swimming in the summer and go skating in the winter. In short, no matter what their interests are, people can always find more than one sports that are suitable to them.
　　本段采用了三个事例来说明主题句中的关键词组different forms of exercises，这三个例子分别由连接词for example, for another example 和 besides引出，最后由引导的结尾句总结全段内容。
　　举例法中常用的连接词有：for example (instance), one example is, besides, furthermore, moreover, in addition等。
3. 叙述法(narration)
　　叙述法发展段落主要是按照事物本身的时间或空间的排列顺序，通过对一些特有过渡连接词的使用，有层次分步骤地表达主题句的一种写作手段。用这种方法展开段落，作者能够清楚连贯地交待事物的本末，从而可以使读者可以清晰、完整解文章的含义，例如：
　　In the flat opposite, a woman heard the noise outside. When she looked out through the window, she discovered that her neighbor was threatened by someone. She immediately called the police station. In answer to the call, a patrol police car arrived at the scene of the crime quickly. Three policemen went inside the flat at once, and others guarded outside the building to prevent anyone from escaping.
　　这段是按照事物发展的先后顺序，叙述从发现案情、报警、到警察赶到、包围现场的过程。全文脉络清晰，叙述的层次感强，结构紧凑。
　　常用于叙述法中的过渡连接词有：first, an the beginning, to start with, after that, later, then, afterwards, in the end, finally等。
4． 对比法或比较法(comparison & contrast)
　　将同类的事物按照某种特定的规则进行比较分析是一种常用的思维方法。通过对比，更容易阐述所述对象之间的异同和优缺点，例如：
　　The heart of an electronic computer lies in its vacuum tubes, or transistors. Its electronic circuits work a thousand times faster than the nicer cells in the human brain. A problem that might take a human being a long time to solve can be solved by a computer in one minute.
　　在这段文字上， 作者为了突出电子计算机运行速度之快，首先将它与人脑进行了比较， &-- a thousand times faster than --& ;而后，又将这一概念具体到了 &a problem&上，通过对比使读者从 &-- a long time -- in one minute&上有更加直观的认识。
　　常用于对本法或比较法上的过渡连接词有：than, compared with等。
5． 分类法(classification)
　　在阐述某一概念的段落中，常用分类法。通过对概念中所包括的事物进行分门别类，分别加以叙述，使读者有更为清晰的认识，如：
　　Ever since humans have lived on the earth, they have made use of various forms of communication. Generally, this expression of thoughts and feelings has been in the form of oral speech. When there is a language barrier, communication is accomplished through sign language in which motions stand for letters, words and ideas. Tourists and the people unable to hear or speak have had to resort to this form of expression. Many of these symbols of whole words are very vivid and exact and can be
spelling, however, cannot. Body language transmits ideas or thoughts by certain actions, either intentionally or unintentionally. A nod signifies approval, while shaking the head indicates a negative reaction. Other forms of nonlinguistic language can be found in signal flags, Morse code, and picture signs.
　　在该段中为了说明topic sentence中的 &various forms of communication&，作者将其分为oral speech, sign language, body language及other forms of nonlinguistic language，并逐加阐述。
　　采用这种方法的段落并没有标志突出的连接词，所述各项均为平行并列关系，所以没有明显的主次之分。
6．　因果分析法(cause and effect)
　　在阐述某一现象的段落中，常采用因果分析法。例如：
　　The role of women in today's society is changing. One reason is that women have begun to assert themselves as independent people through the women's movement. Also, women are aware of the alternatives to staying at home. Another reason is that increasing numbers of women who enter new fields and interests serve as role models for other women. Moreover, men are becoming more conscious of the abilities of women and have begun to view their independence positively.
　　本段中，主题句提出了一种社会现象，推展句则对产生这种现象的原因作出各种解释。 常用于因果分析法的连接词有：because, so, as a result等。
7． 定义法(definition)
　　在科普文章的写作中，定义法是必不可少的。通过下定义，可以使读者对该事物有一个更直接的认识。
　　Automation refers to the introduction of electronic control and automation operation of productive machinery. It reduces the human factors, mental and physical, in production, and is designed to make possible the manufacture of more goods with fewer workers. The development of automation in American industry has been called the &Second Industrial Revolution&.
　　这一段文字使我们了解了 &automation& 和 &Second Industrial Revolution& 两个概念，分别由 &refers to& 和 &been called& 引出。
　　常出现在定义法中的词语有：refer to, mean, call等。
8. 重复法(repetition)
　　句子的一部分反复出现在段落中，这就是重复法。它往往造成一种步步紧逼的气氛，使文章结构紧凑，有感染力。比如：
　　Since that time, which is far enough away from now, I have often thought that few people know what secrecy there is in the young, under terror. I was in mortal terror of the young man who wante I was in mortal terror of my interlocut I was in mortal terror of myself, from whom an awful promis --
　　该段中反复应用了I was in mortal terror of &我经常处于恐怖之中。
　　以上， 我们结合具体文章讨论了展开段落的几种方法。在实际写作中，我们往往不必拘泥于一种写作方法，而是将若干方法穿插在一起，使文章有声有色。
　　我们知道文章的开头很重要，因为好的开头可以吸引读者、抓住读者的注意力。同样，文章的结尾也很重要，好的结尾会使读者对全文的中心思想留下深刻的印象，可以增添文章的效果和说服力，让人深思，回味无穷。确切地说，结尾的作用就是概括全文内容，进一步强调或肯定文章的中心思想，使读者加深印象；有时也用于展望未来，提出今后方向或令人深思的问题给读者留下回味和思考的余地。
　　但是，如何才能写好英文短文的结尾呢? 下面就介绍几种写结尾段最常用的方法：
　　1．重复中心思想: 回到文章开头阐明的中心思想或主题句上，达到再次肯定和强调的效果。
　　(例1)A sense of humor is really one of the keys to happiness. It gives zest to life to make it worth living.
　　(例2)With all these benefits, it is no wonder that sports and games have now become more popular with people than ever.
　　2．作出结论: 文章最后用几句话概括全文内容，并进一步肯定文章的中心思想或作者的观点。
　　(例1)In conclusion, a good teacher-student relationship can be mutual beneficial. The students gain knowledge eagerly and enjoyably, and the teacher gains satisfaction from his job.
　　(例2)On the whole there are more advantages than disadvantages in the use of TV. Yet different people may have different attitude toward TV. But we must realize that television in itself is neither good nor bad. Its value to people and society depends on how we look at it.
　　3．应用引语: 用格言、谚语或习语总结全文，既言简意赅又有更强的说服力。
　　(例1)If you have anything to do, try to do it yourself, for that is the safest way to
permanent success. Remember the famous saying. &God helps those who help themselves.&
　　(例2)If we stick to studies day after day, there is nothing that can't be achieved. As an old saying goes: &Constant dropping of water wears away a stone.&
　　4．用反问结尾: 虽然形式是问句，但意义却是肯定的，具有明显的强调作用，引起读者思考。
　　(例1)Therefore, listening skills must be consciously improved. Since it is such an important means of learning and communication, why should we not develop this ability as far as possible?
　　(例2)So，what can we benefit from wealth if we do not have health?
　　5．提出展望或期望: 表示对将来的展望或期待读者投入行动。
　　(例1)I am sure that Chinese will become one of the most important languages in the world in the next century. As China will open further to the outside world the language is sure to be spread world widely.
　　(例2) If everyone has developed good manners, people will form a more harmonious relation. If everyone behaves considerately towards others and social ethics people will live in a better world. With the general mood of society improved, there will be a progress of civilization.
　　以上介绍了几种写结尾段最常用的方法，但到底选择何种方法结尾还得根据文体来决定。平铺直叙的，往往在或事实情节讲完时文章也就自然结束了，而说理性和逻辑性较强的和议都应有一个正式的结尾。希望以上介绍的几种方法能对大家写好结尾有所帮助。
　　首先，一个段落必须有一个中心即主题思想，该中心由主题句特别是其中的题旨来表达。整个段落必须紧扣这个主题(stick or hold to the topic)，这就是段落的统一性(unity)。其次，一个段落必须有若干推展句，使主题思想得到充分展开，从而给读者一个完整的感觉，这就是完整性(completeness or adequateness)。再者，一个段落不是杂乱无章的，而是有机的组合，句子的排列顺序必须合乎逻辑，从一个句子到另一个句子的过渡必须流畅(smooth)，这就是连贯性(coherence)。下面我们就对这三个标准分别加以说明。
1.　统一性
　　一个段落内的各个句子必须从属于一个中心，任何游离于中心思想之外的句子都是不可取的。请看下例：
　　Joe and I decided to take the long trip we'd always wanted across the country. We were like young kids buying our camper and stocking it with all the necessities of life. Bella bakes the best rhubarb pie. We started out in early spring from Minneapolis and headed west across the northern part of the country. We both enjoyed those people we met at the trailer park. Joe received a watch at his retirement dinner. To our surprise, we found that we liked the warm southern regions very much, and so we decided to stay here in New Mexico.
　　本段的主题句是段首句，controlling idea（中心思想）是take the long trip across the country。文中出现两个irrelevant sentences，一个是Bella bakes the best rhubarb pie，这一段是讲的是Joe and I，中间出现一个Bella是不合适的。还有，Joe received a watch at his retirement dinner这一句更是与主题句不相关。考生在四级统考的卷上常常因为造出irrelevant sentences（不相关语句）而丢分，值得引起注意。再看一个例子：
　　My name is Roseanna, and I like to keep physically fit. I used to weigh two hundred pounds, but I joined the YMCA for an exercise class and diet program. In one year I lost eighty pounds. I feel much better and never want to have that much weight on my five-feet frame again. I bought two new suitcases last week. Every day I practice jogging three miles, swimming fifteen laps, lifting twenty-pound weights and playing tennis for one hour. My mother was a premature baby.
　　本段的controlling idea 是like to deep physically fit，但段中有两个irrelevant sentences，一个是I bought two new suitcases last week，另一个是My mother was a premature baby。
　　从上面两个例子可以看出，native speakers同样会造出来irrelevant sentences。卷面上如果这种句子多了，造成偏题或离题，那问题就更严重了。
怎样写好句子（一）
我们在前面曾提过学生的主要有以下几个方面的问题：
　　第一、底子太薄。
　　第二、量太小，且对已学记忆不清。
　　第三、表达思想不清楚。 下面我们以考生的实际来进行一下分析。
　　1） Some one consider that fresh water will not touch it's end.(96年1月，2分)
　　2） One man's life lack of money, he will impossible to live on. （95年1月，5分）
　　3） As is know, that there are much fake commodities in today's society.(97年12月，6分)
　　这里引述的例句与考生通篇的写作水平是一致的，其中5、6分的例句具有典型性，代表了近乎中等水平考生的写作水平。从这些例句中不难看出，中等水平的考生，事实上也包括中上等水平的考生，在写作上存在的主要问题是表达思想不清楚。
　　表达思想不清楚的主要原因是考生中严重汉化的，即中式，比如： &man can live happiness&， &Man is iron, and food is steel.&, ＂Women are half side sky.＂。此外，语言错误的普遍性和严重性十分惊人，比如，主谓不一致，名词单复数不分，动词时态语态滥用，常用词拼写错误比比皆是。这些严重地影响了思想的表达。实践表明，多数考生在写作上的主要欠缺不是系统的写作理论和方法，而是最基本的单句写作能力。
　　文章无论长短，都是由句子组成的，句子是表达思想的最基本的单位。因此，句子是否能写得正确、达意和清楚，将直接影响整篇文章的写作质量。大学四、六级和研究生入学的实践都表明，考生写作成绩长期得不到明显提高的主要原因是欠缺写好单句的能力。
　　为改变这种状况，我们将从剖析考生中的典型病句入手，对写作测试中的基本句子结构和写法进行评议和分析，来帮助考生进一步提高句子写作能力。
　　否定结构除了在助动词、情态动词，be和have后面加not之外，还有许多不含not的否定结构。若能正确使用他们，文章会显得生动活泼，增加写作的闪光点。下面我们就来看看:
1． 含有否定意义的和短语
　　以下列举的词和词组本身就具有否定的含义，因此无需用否定词。
　　介词against, beyond, but, except, without,...
　　形容词和动词absent, deny, differ, different, fail, free, ignore, miss, refuse, the last, used to,
　　reluctant, lack, want,...
　　短语keep...from, protect...from, prevent...from, let alone, at a loss, in vain, instead of, out
　　of the question, rather than, too...to, by no means, anything but,...
　　我们看以下例句：
　　1） Women fail to get the equal rights in some countries.
　　　　 在一些国家里妇女没有得到平等的权利。
　　2） This is by no means the best way to solve the problem of energy crisis.
　　　　这不是解决能源危机的最好的办法。
　　3） We should protect trees from being destroyed.
　　　　我们应保护树木，不让它们受破坏。
　　4） In old China we could not make a nail, let alone(make) machines.
　　　　在旧中国，我们连一个钉子都造不了，更不用说制造机器了。
2． 含有半否定意义的词语
　　barely, hardly, few, little, rarely, scarcely, seldom, not all, not everyone, not everything,...具
　　有半否定的意义。例句：
　　1） We could hardly see any fresh vegetables in winter on market several years ago.
　　　　几年前在冬天市场上很难见到新鲜蔬菜。
　　2） These young people know little about how to choose good books to read.
　　　　这些年轻人几乎不知道如何挑选优秀的书籍来读。
3． 不含否定意义的否定结构
　　有些词和词组形式上是否定结构，但其含义是肯定的，比如：cannot but, can't help,
　　no sooner...than, not...until, in no time, none other than, nothing but,等等。例句：
　　1） We can't but face the reality.
　　　　我们只有面对现实。
　　2） These old buildings will be replaced by modern apartment buildings in no time.
　　　　这些旧建筑将很快为现代化的公寓所代替。
4． 否定结构的倒装语序
　　我们有时为了强调而把否定词和词组放在句首，这时句子结构应倒装。例如：
　　1） On no account should we follow blindly.我们决不应当盲从。
　　2） No where has the world ever seen such great enthusiasm for learning as in our
　　　　country.没有任何其他地方有我国这样高的学习热情。
五、 含有it的结构
考生病句：
　　1. As is known to all of us that science and technology play an important role in the
　　　　 development of society.
　　2. It is known to us, practice makes perfect.
正确表达：
　　1. It is known to all of us that science and technology play an important role in the
　　　　 development of society. (或:As is known to all of us, science...)
　　2. It is known to us that practice makes perfect. (或:As is known to us, practice...)
评议与分析：
　　例句1是93年12月六级11分的评分样卷句子，例句2选自97年1月四级。很显然，两个考生混淆了it和as的用法。如果用it作形式主语，后面的主语从句必须由that引起；如果用as，则后面不能用that，因为as是关系代词，代表practice makes perfect。
　　It 在中是个相当活跃的代词，在写作中我们常要使用它。以下几种用法应熟练掌握，并能灵活运用。
　　1．作形式主语
　　It is necessary for us to master a foreign language skillfully. It makes difference whether
　　 we could purify the air or not.
　　2.作形式宾语
　　We find it rather difficult to prevent people from doing that. Modern science has made it
　　 possible for babies to grow healthily and for people to live longer.
　　3.引导强调句
　　It is only by this way that we can achieve success. It was then that people began to realize
　　 the importance of controlling population.
　　从语法结构来看，上述的句子都不难，或者可以说是考生相当熟悉的。然而在写作中，多数考生缺乏运用自己已掌握的句式的意识，而以自己头脑中拼凑的中式取而代之。其实，只要能恰当地运用上述的任何一个句式，考生的就会出现闪光点，就会取得比较好的成绩。
怎样写好句子（二）
一、 ＂There be＂结构
　　考生病句：
　　1. There are many people like to go to the movies.
　　2. There are different kinds of vegetables can be bought on the market by people.
　　正确表达：
　　1. There are many people who like to go to the movies.
　　2. There are different kinds of vegetables that people can buy on the market.
　　这两个例句的错误比较有普遍性，因为在历次中有不少考生不能正确运用there be这一最常用的句式。在这种结构中，there是引导词，没有实际意义。be在句中作谓语，有时态和数的变化。
　　1. There was no school in the village at that time. (=there was not a school...)
　　注意：在否定句中，否定词用no，也可用not a或not any。not a后接单数名词，not a 后接复数名词，no后面的名词单复数都可以。
　　2. There is not a moment to be lost.
　　3. There are many people rushing into the cities every year.
　　4. There are many things we can do to prevent traffic accidents.
　　5. There is no use holding back the wheel of history.
　　从以上例句还可看出，句中的主语后面可接多种修饰语，如介词短语、不定式短语、定语从句、分词短语等等。这无疑使该结构增加了表现力，使句子表达内容更加丰富。 在运用这一结构时，考生最容易犯的错误是在there be之后又用了一个动词作谓语，使句子结构出现严重错误。这里列举的考生的典型错误均属这种情况，对此我们在写作中要格外注意。
　　二、 比较结构
　　考生病句：
　　1. Comparing with the bike, the car runs much faster.
　　2. The climate in Walton is colder than other cities.
　　正确表达：
　　1. Compared with the bike, the car runs much faster.
　　2. The climate in Walton is colder than that of other cities.
　　评议与分析：许多考生在中用compare或than表示比较，但相当多的表达有误。
　　在例1中，对两个事物进行比较的句式为Compared with A, B...,只能用compare的过去分词，不能用现在分词，因为B是分词的逻辑主语，只能被比较。在例2中，考生误将&天气&与&城市&进行比较，而二者没有可比性，只有将后者改为&其他城市的天气&才符合逻辑，很显然，考生的错误是受了汉语表达习惯的影响。
　　比较结构是常用结构，正确地使用这一结构可以使文章的句式增加变化，有利于提高写作成绩。一般说来，考生若能恰当、正确地运用这一结构，其写作成绩应在5分以上。
下面是比较结构的一些常用的表达方法。
　　1． 同级比较
　　1） In 1998 we produced as many cars as we did in the previous five years.
　　2） We have accomplished as much in the past three years as would have taken ten years
　　　　 in the past.
　　2． 比较级
　　1） Children now enjoy better medical treatment than before.
　　2） We can live longer without food than we can (live ) without water.
　　3． 最高级
　　1） This is the most interesting book I've ever read.
　　2） Of all his novels I like this one best.
　　4． the more&the more&结构
　　1) The harder you work, the greater progress you will make.
　　2) The more a man knows, the more he discovers his ignorance.
　　5． 选择比较
　　1) I prefer staying at home to going out.
　　2) They prefer to work rather than (to) sit idly.
　　3) He prefers to work alone.
　　注意：这里的1）句用的是Prefer A to B结构，to为介词，后接名词或动名词；2）句是以不定式作　　　prefer的宾语；3）句用法同2），只是不把rather than部分表达出来。
　　6． 对比
　　1) Motion is absolute while stagnation is relative.
　　2) He is tired out, whereas she is full of vigour.
　　注意：while 和whereas均可用于连接两个意义对立的分句，相当于汉语的&而&字。许多考生能较好地运用这一句式，尤其在图表中。
　　三、 表达原因的结构
考生病句：
　　1. The real reason to our failure is not far to seek.
　　2. The reason for this is because some people want to earn plenty of money without
　　　　 working hard.
正确表达：
　　1. The real reason for our failure is not far to seek.
　　2. The reason for this is that some people want to earn plenty of money without working
　　　　hard.
评议与分析：
　　以上两个病句分别引自92年1月和97年12月四级的考生。从遣词造句上看，这两位考生具有一定的写作能力，not far to seek, plenty of money以及without working hard等均运用正确、恰当。但令人遗憾的是，第一位考生不知道reason不与to搭配而应接介词for，第二位考生犯了一个中国学生常犯的错误，就是用because引起表语从句，because这个词不能引起表语从句，在本句中只能改用that才正确。
　　掌握好表达原因的结构是十分重要的，几乎所有的写作都要求写原因或可以写原因。在大学四、六级、研究生入学以及TOEFL中，写作的文体基本上是议，而议的基本模式是摆事实、讲道理，讲道理就是说明原因。写作测试的文体决定了表达原因结构的重要性。
　　中用来表达原因这一概念的结构有多种。我们可用as , because, since, seeing that, considering that, now that, not that...等词组引出表示原因的从句。例如：
　　1. Now that we have seen these great achievements with our own eyes, we feel more
　　　　proud than ever of our country.
　　2. Professor Liu is strict with us because he wants us to make rapid progress.
　　3. Since we live near the sea, we enjoy a healthy climate.
　　4. Pollution is still a serious problem, not that we don't have the ability to solve it, but that
　　　　some people have not realized the consequences of the problem.
　　我们还可以借助某些词语用简单句表达原因结构。例如：
　　1. The reason for this change is quite obvious.
　　2. Diligence is the key factor of success.
　　3. Idleness is the root of all evils.
　　4. He was ashamed to have made the mistake.(=He was ashamed that he had made the
　　　　mistake. =He was ashamed because he had made the mistake.)
　　除了上述的例句外，中还有很多或易或难的表达原因的结构。我们在进行写作训练的时候，不能满足于一知半解，要讲究书面语言的正确性和准确性。比如，because是最常用的引导原因从句的连词，语气最强，表示直接的原因，若because置于句首，后面的主句不能再用so。用as引导的原因从句语气较弱，所说明的原因是附带的，而since表示的原因暗示着是稍加分析之后才能推断出来的原因。
　　四、 否定结构
　　考生病句
　　1. Some people think we needn't to worry about fresh water.
　　2. Nowadays many people don't like to go to the movies, too.
　　正确表达：
　　1. Some people think we needn't worry (或don't need to worry) about fresh water.
　　2. Nowadays many people don't like to go to the movies, either.
评议与分析：
　　例句1选自96年1月四级考生，例句2选自92年1月六级考生。例句1 的错误在于该考生混淆了need作为情态动词和作为普通动词的用法。need作为情态动词时，主要用于否定句，后面的动词不带to, needn't worry，作we的谓语。need作为实意动词时，可用于肯定句、否定句和疑问句，don't need to worry 中的to worry作don't need的宾语。例句2的错误在于该考生混淆了too和either的区别，这两个词都表示&也&的意思，但是在中too, also只能用于肯定句，而either只能用于否定句。
怎样使句子多样化？
一篇好文章的条件很多。除了内容丰富和组织紧密之外，的运用和句子的处理，也起着决定性作用。
　　句子可长可短，同一件事，可以用不同的句式表达。如果句子清一色是简单句，文章必定很单调乏味。如果全篇充满了冗长的复杂句，读起来也很费力。最好的方法是以简单句为基础，配合适当的并列句和复杂句。简单句可长可短，通常要加些附属成分，如分词短语、介词短语、副词短语、不定式动词短语，以及节缩成分。
　　总之，作者可根据情况，使句子多样化，使文章灵活多姿。例如下列五个句子的基本概念一样，但是句式不同，内容重点也有些差别：
　　(1) The goats grazed peacefully in the farm and were unaware of the approaching hunter. (并列分句(1)+2)
　　(2) Grazing peacefully, the goats in the farm were unaware of the approaching hunter. (现在分语短语+简单句)
　　(3) In the farm, the goats grazed peacefully and were unaware of the approaching hunter. (副词短语+并列分句(1)-(2) )
　　(4) There were goats grazing peacefully in the farm, unaware of the approaching hunter. (简单句+形容语短语)
　　(5) As the goats grazed peacefully in the farm, they were unaware of the approaching hunter. (原因副词从句+主句)
　　(1)和(5)的句式最常见；如果加上其他三种互相交替，句子不是更多样化吗？
　　最后，看看这两个句子要如何多样化呢？
　　(6) The young pilot was on his first overseas training.
　　(7) He felt very uneasy.
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　　(a) The young pilot on his first overseas training felt very uneasy.
　　(b) The young pilot felt very uneasy during his first overseas training.
　　(c) The young pilot's first overseas training made him feel very uneasy.
　　(d) Extreme uneasiness seized the young pilot on his first overseas training.
　　(e) The young pilot was on his first overseas training, feeling very uneasy.
　　(f) It being his first overseas training, the young pilot felt very uneasy.
　　(g) Being on his first overseas training, the young pilot felt very uneasy.
　　(h) The young pilot was on his first overseas training and felt very uneasy.
　　(i) The young pilot, who was on his first overseas training, felt very uneasy.
　　(j) When the young pilot was on his/first overseas trainging, he felt very uneasy.
　　(k) As the young pilot was on his first overseas training, he felt very uneasy.
　　(l) The young pilot was on his first overseas training, so that he felt very uneasy.
　　在上述12个句子中，(a)-(g)是简单句；(h)是并列句；(i)-(l)是复杂句。简单句除(b)和(g)之外，其他五样，用的人并不多。人们最喜欢采用复杂句，尤其是(j)和(k)这两款；接着便是并列句(h)。如果大多数人的句子只限于(b),(g), (h), (j)和(k)这五种，而其他的则弃如敝屣，不是很可惜吗？
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