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Internet Addresses as Evolving PropertyKenton K. Yee Stanford Graduate School of Business 5.1. Economics of Trademarks At present, rights to domain names are protected in the United Sta
tes mainly under only trademark law. A trademark is a &word, name, symbol, or device, or any combination thereof ... [used] to identify and distinguish his or her goods, including a unique product, from those manufactured or sold by others and to indicate the source of the goods, even if that source is unknown.&(15 USC ).) A service mark takes the same form and serves the same purpose for services. &Titles, character names, and other distinctive features of radio and television programs may be registered as service marks[.]&(15 USC ).) Trade names are names used to identify a person's business or vocation. (15 USC ).) Whereas the PTO grants federal registrations for marks while no federal agency registers trade names, the Lanham Act offers essentially equal protection for both marks and names. Thus, for most practical purposes, there is not much significant legal difference in federal law between trade name and mark protection. However, for domain name purposes the focus has been entirely on trademarks (rather than trade names, which might be considered more naturally related to domain names than marks) because the Internic's DND Policy is based on federal trademark registrations. The Lanham Act prohibits the misappropriation of trademarks and service marks used in interstate commerce. Any person who in connection with any goods or services uses a mark in a way which &is likely to cause confusion ... as to the origin, sponsorship, or approval of his or her goods, services, or commercial activities ... shall be liable in a civil action by any person who believes that he or she is or likely to be damaged by such act.& (15 USC § 1125(a) (1996).) Furthermore, any goods or services marked or label so as to cause confusion as to the origin, sponsorship, or approval &shall not be imported into the United States.&(15 USC § 1125(b) (1996).)The legal protection of trademarks has a long history. Craftsmen marked their pottery since the ancient times. While the original utility of marks was to identify the source for fraud claims if the product did not meet the advertised quality standard, this been turned on its head. More than identifying the maker, marks have come to identify the quality of products associated with particular makers. By the beginning of the twentieth century marks were understood to be useful in identifying the quality standard of their owners. Presently, a trademark typically identifies a product and its quality---the actual identity of a product's source is probably only secondary in consumer's minds.(Goldstein P, 1993 pp.16-17) For instance, when a consumer buys a used Toyota, he probably does not worry too much about whether it was manufactured in Tennessee by an American subsidiary of Toyota or in Japan by the parent company. What the consumer knows is that the Toyota mark is associated with certain characteristics that Toyota owners have come to expect. Trademarks are a form of restricted property. Unlike the rights granted a fee simple holder of real property, the rights accorded a traditional trademark owner is limited to protecting against consumer confusion. In other words, traditional trademark protection focuses on consumers rather than the trademark owner. Accordingly, trademarks are traditionally protected only to the extent that they serve to identify and distinguish one merchant's goods or services from those of another. Legal trademark protection is justifiable from an economic standpoint. Sellers generally have better information as to unobservable features of a commodity for sale than potential buyers. Marks reduce this information asymmetry between sellers and buyers by enabling potential buyers to rely on knowledge about the mark's reputation to aid in evaluating a marketed product or service.(Landes W and Posner R, 1988) In identifying and distinguishing one seller's goods from the goods sold by others, marks (1) signal to consumers that all goods bearing a particular trademark originate from or are controlled by a common source, (2) suggest that all goods bearing the same trademark are of the same quality, (3) may play a substantive role in advertising or drawing attention to the product or service. In economic language, the &total price& of a product or service is the store price plus the buyer's search costs. Search costs consist of the buyer's expenditures of timeand effort in locating and identifying the product or service as the one he seeks. The use of marks reduces the total price by lowering search costs. The use of marks comes with important economic side effects, both good and bad. Marks encourage the maintenance of quality and consistency by sellers who try to boost profits by increasing and preserving consumer confidence in their mark. In seeking to increase the influence of their mark on consumers, however, sellers have a perverse incentive to over advertise and create an unjustified high regard for their mark. Moreover, sellers may find it more profitable in the short run to inflate a mark and mislead consumers rather than to enhance the actual quality of the marketed product or service. The costs of over advertising and of being misled into buying the wrong product are ultimately born by consumers. Therefore some of the benefits from reduced search costs and enhanced product quality are diminished by the perverse incentives, which tend to increase the total price of marketed products or services. Courts have long recognised that trademarks are not rights in gross or at large like the other forms of statutory intellectual property, copyrights or patents. From an economics perspective, this is not surprising because patents and copyrights are rights granted to reward past performance, whereas marks are granted to protect ongoing use by owners and consumers. In contrast to trademarks, patents and copyrights are (i) time limited (ii) monopolies (iii) which may be assigned or licensed. In contrast, trademarks are afforded Lanham Act protection for and only for the duration of their useful purpose in commerce. Restricting trademark ownership in this way is efficient because there is a finite number of potential trade names and marks, and it is inefficient to permit hoarding by suboptimal users. In this regard, marks may lose their legal protection in two ways: abandonment and genericide. A mark which has been abandoned by its owner (eg, ceased to be used in commerce) loses its legal protection and becomes available for adoption by a new owner to use for his own purposes. On the flip side of abandonment, a mark suffers genericide when it has been popularised to the point of becoming a generic term whose principal significance to consumers is as reference to a &nature or class& of a product or service rather than to its particular source or quality. A mark sufferinggenericide becomes incapable of identifying or distinguishing its source or quality and becomes incapable of serving as a source or quality signaller. Furthermore, giving one owner a monopoly on a generic name forces competitors, who then must avoid the generic name, to assign their products awkward names, which increase the search costs of consumers looking to compare competing products. Accordingly, marks suffering genericide such as &aspirin,& &cellophane,& and &yo-yo& have lost their legally protected status as intellectual property. This treatment of abandonment and genericide of marks are both consistent with the economic goals of providing information to consumers and providing protection to marks only to the extent that they actually promote consumer needs. For similar reasons, trademark owners do not hold an absolute monopoly on their mark: others in separate geographic, product, or service areas may use overlapping marks provided their use does not confuse consumers. In a sense, the driving purpose of trademark law and real property law are the same: putting limited resources, real estate or catchy words or logos, to their best use. Like fee simples in real property, marks can be held indefinitely (or as long as the owner puts her mark to good use or at least defends her rights to it). The abandonment and genericide restrictions on trademark protection are reminiscent of adverse possession in real property. From an economics viewpoint, abandonment, genericide, and adverse possession optimise social welfare by removing from owners the property rights which they do not make adequate use of.互联网地址的演进Kenton K. Yee斯坦福大学商学院 5.1 经济学商标 5.1.经济学的商标 目前情况下，域名权在美国主要受商标法保护。商标是“单词、名称、符号， 或设备或及其任何组合……被用来识别和区分他或她的货物， 包括一个独特的产 品，从那些制造或销售他人，并注明来源的货物，即使该来源不详。 ” （15USC).)服务商标采用相同的形式和服务同样的目的。 “标题、字 符名称和其他的广播、电视节目的特点可作为服务商标注册” （ 15USC).) 贸 易 名 称 是 用 于 确 定 一 个 人 的 业 务 或 职 业 的 名 称 。 （15USC).) 虽然没有联邦机构注册商标名称，并使用授予联邦注册商标，而主簿行为提 供了实质上的平等保护标记的名称。因此，就最实际的目的而言，区别贸易名称 和商标保护的联邦法律的重要性已经没有意义了。但是，域名目的焦点已经完全 对商标（而不是商品名称，可能会被认为是更自然相关域名比商标）因为政策基 于联邦商标注册。 主簿法禁止盗用商标和服务商标州际商务中使用。 任何人的任何货品或服务 使用的标记的方式，&是有可能混淆……，起源、赞助或批准的他或她的货物、 服务或商业活动须由任何人认为他或她是民事诉讼中的法律责任或可能受到的 这种行为&。 （15USC§1125(a)(1996)。)此外，任何货品或服务标记或使混乱的 起源、赞助，或批准的标签&不得进口到美国。&（15USC§1125(b)(1996)。) 商标的法律保护有着悠久的历史。工匠从远古以来就标记他们的陶器。虽然 原始实用程序的标记来标识源， 因为欺诈声称如果产品不符合广告已打出的质量 标准，就可以退货。多个标识为生产商标记来标识相关联的特定制造商的产品的质量。二十世纪初商标被理解为有益于标识其所有者的身份。目前，商标通常用 来标识的产品，其质量――一种产品实际的生产地可能是在消费考虑的第二因 素。(戈尔斯坦 P，1993pp.16-17)例如，当消费者使用的丰田，他可能无需担心 它是美国田纳西州的子公司生产的还是日本的母公司生产的。 消费者知道的是丰 田标志是丰田业主一直期待的某些特征与相关联。 商标是属性的一种限制。不同授予物业费给简单持有人的权利，给予传统商 标所有者的权利仅限于针对消费者的困惑，提供保护。换句话说，传统的商标保 护重点是消费者，而不是以商标所有人。因此，传统上的商标保护是有助于消费 者识别和区分一个商人的货物或服务的。 法律的商标保护是从经济的角度来看。与出售商品的潜在买家比，卖方通常 具有更好的信息采集功能。标记可减少依赖知识标记的声誉，以帮助评估上市的 产品或服务有关的潜在买家和卖家之间的信息不对称。 (朗德 W 和波斯纳 R， 1988 年）从他人的货品中识别和区分一个卖方的货物，标记(1)消费者特定的商标的 所有商品源自或有共同的原料(2)建议同一商标的所有商品都有质量相同，(3)在 广告中发挥实质性的作用，或提请注意该产品或服务。 在经济的语言中，一种产品或服务的&总价是存储价格加买方的搜索成本。 搜索费用包括买方的支出的时间和精力的定位和识别的产品或服务， 商标的使用 将通过降低搜索成本来实现总价格的下降。 商标使用带有重要经济的副作用，好与坏。标记鼓励维修的质量和一致性的 人试图通过提高和维护他们的标记在消费者心中的信心来提高利润的卖家。 在寻 求扩大其标记对消费者的影响，不过，卖方为了他们的商标在广告中有反常的激 励和创建不合理的高度。此外，卖家会觉得在短期内膨胀的标记和误导消费者中 更有利可图，而不是提高实际上市的产品或服务的质量。在广告和被误导购买错 误的产品的成本最终是由消费者承担的。 因此一些减少搜索成本和提高的产品质 量，通过减少不正当的动机所带来的利益的，往往会增加上市的产品或服务的总 价格。 法院早已认为商标不像其他形式的法定的知识产权那样重要， 比如版权或专利。从经济学的角度看，这不足为奇，因为专利和版权权利的授予过于形式，而 标记授予业主和消费者保护正在进行使用。相对于商标、专利和版权是(一)限定 的时间(二)垄断(三)可分配或领牌。 与此相反，商标享有主簿法保护，仅对他们有用的目的，在商务中的持续时 间。以这种方式的商标所有权的限制是有效的，因为有限数量的潜在商业名称和 标志，并且它是效率低下，容许囤积的次优的用户。 在这方面，标记可能会丢失其法律的保护，两种方式：放弃和 genericide。 已放弃其所有者的标记（例如，停止使用商务中)失去及其法律保护，并通过一 个新的所有者， 为他自己的目的使用可用。 对被遗弃的另一面， 标记遭受侵犯时， 它已成为通用的术语，其对消费者的主要意义是为&性质或类&提供一直流传的一 种产品或服务，而不是其特定的来源或质量。痛苦的标记变得无法识别或识别其 来源或质量，并变得无能力作为来源或质量的滑车。此外，通用名称提供一个所 有者的垄断力量的竞争对手，然后必须避免的通用名称，将他们的产品尴尬的分 配名称，可能比同类竞争产品的消费者搜索成本增加。因此，药品如&阿司匹林& 的标记，胶膜、和&溜溜球&已经失去了其依法受保护的地位作为知识产权。这个 被遗弃的治疗的标记都符合经济目标的为消费者提供信息， 并提供商标保护范围 内，才他们实际上促进消费者的需求。 类似的原因，商标所有人对其标记都没有绝对的垄断：在单独的地理、产品 或服务领域中的其他人可以使用重叠标记，只要其提供使用不会混淆消费者。 在某种意义上，商标法和物权法的目的是相同的：把有限的资源、房地产引 人注目的词或徽标最充分地利用。物业费样品，像标记可以无限期地举行（或只 要拥有人把她好的标记使用，或至少防止她的权利受侵害） 。放弃的限制商标保 护让人联想起拥有的不良房地产。从经济学观点来看，遗弃和逆权有优化社会、 福利业主的作用，他们没有充分利用去除使用的财产权利。
五分钟搞定 5000 字-外文文献翻译【你想要的工具都在这里】工具大 全 /node/2151 建议收藏 在科研过程中阅读翻译外文文献是一个非常重要...外文翻译_管理学_高等教育_教育专区。郑州轻工业学院 专科毕业设计(论文)外文翻译 题 目 Network marketing strategy analysis of VANCL 学生姓名 专业班级 学号 ...扬州大学本科生毕业设计 外文资料翻译 FPGA 技术介绍 【概述】 场域可程式化闸阵列 (FPGA) 技术正持续发展,而全世界 FPGA 市场的产值,则 预估可从 2005 年的 ...PLC中英文资料外文翻译_工学_高等教育_教育专区。PLC technique discussion and future development Along with the development of the ages, the technique that is...毕业设计(论文) 毕业设计(论文)外文文献翻译要求根据《普通高等学校本科毕业设计(论文)指导》的内容,特对外文文献翻译提出以下要求: 一、翻译的外文文献的字符要求不...湖北大学本科毕业论文(设计)外文翻译 外文翻译: 外文翻译: 索引 原文来源:Thomas Kyte.Expert Oracle Database Architecture .2nd Edition. 译文正文: 什么情况下使用...7 大连交通大学 2012 届本科生毕业设计(论文)外文翻译 MySQL 数据库管理中心 数据库(有时拼成 database)也称为电子数据库,是指由计算机特别组织的快速查 找和...外文翻译_化学_自然科学_专业资料。咸阳师范学院2012届 本科毕业生外文文献翻译 学生姓名:张斌 学生学号: 专业名称:化学 班级:化学0801班 指导老师:张知侠...外文翻译2(1)_英语学习_外语学习_教育专区。毕业设计(论文) 外文文献翻译 译文题目:Euler s Fermat’s 译文题目:Euler’s Theorem and Fermat s Theorem 学生姓...外文翻译_英语学习_外语学习_教育专区。用多种精选发酵菌发酵而成的山羊乳是一种潜在的功能保健食品 用多种精选发酵菌发酵而成的山羊乳是一种潜在的功能保健食品 ...
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gas–liquid interfacial area, m2/m3(amine)0
total amine concentration, kmol/m3B
base assisting in zwitterion deprotonation(B)
concentration of base B in bulk liquid, kmol/m3(CO2)
concentration of CO2, kmol/m3Damine
diffusivity of amine in liquid phase, m2/sDCO2
diffusivity of CO2 in liquid phase, m2/s(DEEA)0
initial DEEA concentration, kmol/m3E
enhancement factor due to chemical reactionEi
enhancement factor for an instantaneous chemicalreaction(EEA)0
initial EEA concentration, kmol/m3HCO2
Henry’s law constant, kmol/(m3 kPa)k1
forward reaction rate constant in Eq. (9),m3/(kmol s)k−1
backward reaction rate constant in Eq. (9), 1/s
seco畅窢扳喝殖估帮台爆郡nd order reaction rate constant defined byEq. (32), m3/(kmol s)k
reaction rate constant in Eq. (1)kap
apparent reaction rate constant defined by Eq. (22)kB
reaction rate constant in Eq. (10)kL
liquid side mass transfer coefficient, m/skobs
observed reaction rate constant defined by Eq. (21)kOH−
forward reaction rate constant in Eq. (6)kS
forward reaction rate constant in Eq. (7)M
dimensionless number defined by Eq. (27)n
speed of agitation, rpm(OH−)
hydroxyl ion concentration, kmol/m3p
pressure, kPaPCO2
partial pressure of CO2 in bulk gas phase, kPaR
linear correlation coefficientrDEEA
rate of reaction of CO2 in aqueous DEEA solutions,kmol/(m3s)rEEA
rate of reaction of CO2 in aqueous EEA solutions,kmol/(m3s)roverall
overall rate of reaction defined by Eq. (19),kmol/(m3s)RCO2
specific rate of absorption of CO2, kmol/(m2 s)RR_NH
N-ethylethanolamineR2R_N
N,N-diethylethanolamine(RR_NH)
concentration of N-ethylethanolamine, kmol/m3(R2R_N)
concentration of N,N-diethylethanolamine,kmol/m3T
temperature, K
提问者采纳
一个气液相界面积,平方米/立方米(胺)0总胺浓度、kmol /立方米协助两性离子离子B基地(B)浓度的基础B散装,kmol /立方米二氧化碳(CO2)浓度,kmol /立方米Damine在液相扩散系数、胺(m2)/秒DCO2 CO2在液相扩散系数(m2)/秒(DEEA)0初始DEEA浓度、kmol /立方米由于E增强因子化学反应美国饭店协会教育学院为一个瞬时chemicalreaction增强因子(EEA)0初始EEA浓度、kmol /立方米HCO2亨利定律常数,kmol /(m3 kPa)反应速率常数k前锋在Eq。(9),立方米/(kmol s)凯西−1落后的反应速率常数在情商。(9),1 / sk2二阶反应速率常数byEq定义。(畅窢扳喝殖估帮台爆郡32),立方米/(kmol s)凯西反应速率常数(1)在情商。kap明显的反应速率常数定义(22)式。反应速率常数k在Eq。(10)吉隆坡侧的传热传质系数液体,米/秒kobs观察反应速率常数定义(21)式。反应速率常数−kOH提出在Eq。(6)kS在情商提出反应速率常数。(7)无量纲数米定义Eq(27岁)。氮速度的风潮,每分钟转速(噢−)羟基离子浓度、kmol /立方米p压力、kPaPCO2散装压强的二氧化碳气相,kPa线性相关系数RrDEEA率的二氧化碳DEEA反应体系的解决方案,kmol /(m3s)rEEA反应速率的二氧化碳在水溶液EEA的解决方案,kmol /(m3s)roverall总体率的反应所定义的Eq。(19),kmol /(m3s)RCO2一定比率的吸收二氧化碳,kmol /(m2 s)RR_NH N-ethylethanolamineR2R_N氮、N-diethylethanolamine(RR_NH)浓度的N-ethylethanolamine,kmol /立方米(R2R_N)浓度氮、N-diethylethanolamine,kmol /立方米T,sT温度、钾
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其他1条回答
一个气液相界面积,平方米/立方米
(胺)0总胺浓度、kmol /立方米
协助两性离子离子B基地
(B)浓度的基础B散装,kmol /立方米
二氧化碳(CO2)浓度,kmol /立方米
Damine在液相扩散系数、胺(m2)/秒
DCO2 CO2在液相扩散系数(m2)/秒
(DEEA)0初始DEEA浓度、kmol /立方米
由于E增强因子化学反应
美国饭店协会教育学院为一个瞬时chemicalreaction增强因子
(EEA)0初始EEA浓度、kmol /立方米
HCO2亨利定律常数,kmol /(m3 kPa)
反应速率常数k前锋在Eq。(9),立方米/(kmol s)
凯西−1落后的反应速率常数在情商。(9),1 / s
k2二阶反应速率常数byEq定义。(32),立方米/(kmol s)
凯西反应速率常数(1)在情商。
kap明显的反应速率常数定义(22)式。
反应速率常数k在Eq。(10)
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出门在外也不愁【web radio】K of Radio 第9回
出处：福山润 吧 出演者：櫻井孝-宏草薙出雲
福山潤-八田美咲
宮野真守-伏見猿比古役
唧唧更新时间: 21:30:30 &&B站发布时间: 19:30:00
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大半夜看这个简直有病hhhhhh听不懂只能跟着笑没有字幕好痛苦啥都没有，就听到他们的魔性笑声漆黑一片……考哥的笑……日语废很好奇到底说了些啥，笑的这么开森你们三个不能压制一下么摸摸字幕君突然想起nururu@鲁鲁修radio 考哥很努力的控场，奈何自己笑点太低没人了吗？字幕君快出来字幕还在吗录音室外工作人员看他们三个神经病都快哭了吧。。。就算听不懂他们在说啥但觉得笑声意外魔性然后跟着一起笑的我是一个人？wocao考哥的甲虫兽声线都粗来了ˊ_&ˋMAMO是粉色的巨型少女半夜看这个←_←←因为考哥也被他们俩带跑了- -一开头就是mamo的鬼畜笑是的没进错房间摸摸字幕君米娜桑好久不见，我是动画K八田美咲役的福山润~米娜桑好久不见，晚上好，动画K，草薙出云役的樱井孝宏米娜桑好久不见，大家好 米娜桑，好久不见，大家好三个人笑了十分钟终于开始了吗hhhhhh哈哈哈xDDDDDmumumu~~~別這樣 很奇怪?謝謝字幕君~~~一个介绍你们仨都能玩成这样。。。。KKKKKKKfushimi saruhiK~~~~考哥：有一根电线杆子挡在我和润之间。。。快被他们三个吵死了少见的润润的脸。。。好像听到了铃村。。。。疯掉了啦hhhhh前方高能！这三个人是不是有毒啊！一直笑。可怕。害我也一直全场笑什么鬼！三个神经病hhhhh完全听不懂@玛丽安戴尔我也要看润的颜艺_(:з」∠)_那是什么，完全不明白什么时候出来自己也不知道最近的伏西米君这不是让人很开心么(￣Д￣)?那个，mamo酱那个，mamo酱不要笑啦，我都要笑疯了全程哈哈哈哈gleglelglegle~~MI ~ SA ~ KI ~~!!!!!!!! 啊，搞错了QAQ完全听不懂啊但是耳朵好像要怀孕了！！！！刚才那个是啥= = 前方高能= = 这一段有字幕版得homohomo？mamo酱一上来就笑得如此魔性hhhhhhh我去那声少女是什么鬼还没有字幕……润润你疯了www哈哈哈哈哈仍然没有字幕junjun这个称呼好可爱三个人笑得好开心QAQ我却一个字都听不懂……卧槽别笑了！！哈哈哈哈哈哈我也笑个不停尼玛谢谢字幕君！！你们开心就好wwwwwwww三個人玩得太開心了吧！笑点好低的你们hhhhhhhhh现在已经笑得无法带入角色了【。你们三个快停下来哈哈哈哈哈我也跟着笑了起来猴哥。。。。带入无能这里是野生字幕君 之前发的字幕大部分都被吃了心好痛(?o?︿o??)把字幕君养肥了再看听不懂啊……至少这两分钟内请忍耐一下我的也是粉色的是粉色的呢这真是太糟糕了啊哈 但是来玩吧！比如说刚刚 这个收录开始之前字幕君你在哪感谢野生字幕！给字幕君表白(?&ω&*?)-hhhhhhhhhmamo你别笑啦hhhhhhhhhhh 感谢字幕小天使！*\(^o^)/*求字幕君☆又欺负下野wwww一直跟着傻笑……我是不是没救了我覺得模仿的超像的這次櫻井桑真的沒有笑噢！你oh...剛剛這個是誰笑的呢剛剛junjun進來的時候啊哪個我知道