六上日积月累第一单元gong、落红不是无情物，化作春泥更护花。（龚自珍） 、造物无言却有情，每于寒尽觉春生。（张唯屏） 、今夜偏知春气暖，虫声新透绿窗纱。（刘方平） 、此夜曲 闻折柳，何人不起故园情。（李白）、卧看满天云不动，不知云与我俱东。（陈与义）zhen、不是花
偏菊，此花开尽更无花。（元稹）第二单元、 、 国人民 民族，这 儿子， 深情 自信 着 泉源。（周恩来） 祖国和人民。（邓小平） 国才有真进步。（鲁迅） ， 就无法生存，、惟有民魂 、值得宝贵 祖国，，惟有他发扬起来，人民，离开了她，离开了他更无法写作。（巴金）第三单元、轻诺必寡信。《老子》 、民无信 、 精 立。《论语》 诚， 能动人。《庄子》、诚者，天之道也；诚之者，人之道也。《礼记》 、有所期诺，纤毫必偿；有所期约，时刻 易。《袁氏世范》第四单元、善待地球就 善待自己。、拯救地球就拯救未来。、但存方寸地，留与子孙耕。 、有限 资源，无限 循环。、珍惜自然资源，共营生命绿色。第五单元、横眉岭对千夫指，俯首甘为孺子牛。《自嘲》 、其实地 、 本没有路，走 人 ，也便成 路。《故乡》 纪念》 。《门像一只牛，吃 性命，无端草，挤出来 空耗别人奶、血。许广平《欣慰 无异与谋财害命、时间就 外文谈》时间，其实、只看一个人著作，结果：就得到方面优点。必须如蜜蜂采蜜一样，采过许 限,枯燥 。《致颜黎民》花，这才酿出蜜来。倘若叮一处，所得就非常有第七单元马诗 （唐）李贺 漠沙如雪， 燕山月似钩。 何当 络脑，快走踏清秋。六上词语盘点第一单元清 吟诵 唱和 瀑布 陡峭 挺拔 身躯 精致 蕴含 奥秘 侠客 静谧 追随巷 俏丽 烘烤 音韵演奏 探索 勤勉 漫游 亲吻德高望重 津津乐道 别有深意 行色匆匆左冲右撞 意味深长 庞然物第二单元杰出 修筑 设计 施工 阻挠 控制 轰动 艰巨 毅然 铲平 勉励 恶劣 泥浆 岔道 真挚 避免 朦胧 凄凉 引用 强烈 居庸关 悬崖峭壁 狂风怒号 惹人讥笑 寝 安席 思潮起伏 可见一斑第三单元舒适 搁板 勉强 抱怨 倾听 掀起 魁梧 严肃 忧虑 神圣 悠悠 庄重 仪式 抱 歉 溜走 介意 追问 荒唐 声望 割舍湿淋淋 缝补补 吃一惊 撕破倒霉 惊肉跳 自言自语 自作自受 缝第四单元遥望 晶莹 资源 矿物 恩赐 节制 枯竭 滥用 威胁 指望 设想 移民 破碎 目 睹 圣洁 骏马 雄鹰 潺潺 回荡 滋润 善待 松脂 宝贵 滋养 婴儿 眷恋 和蔼 可亲 闪闪 光第五单元厨房 刺猬 畜生 遗体 挽联 致敬 爱抚 团聚 情节 记性 保存 阴暗 意 深奥 详细 枯瘦 逝世 文章 咳嗽 明晃晃 失声痛哭 囫囵吞枣 张冠李戴 马马虎虎 恍然 匆匆忙忙 饱经风霜 悟 风怒号 低微 寒 韩语我：na 你：nong 父亲：a bu ji（或者是 a ba） 母亲：o ma 姐姐：o ni 哥哥：oppa（注意：这个称呼是女生对喜欢的人的爱称，和爸爸的发音完全不一 样哦！） 大叔：a jia xi 大嫂：a ji ma你好（见面用语）：a ning a say o 你好（电话用语“喂”）：you pu sai yo 我爱你：sang lang hey 对不起： a nei （但还有人说是 mi a nei） bi 对长辈或陌生人时用 mi-an-han-ni-da或 chwei-song-han-mida谢谢：gu more yo（或者是 cang sa ha mi da） 傻瓜：pa bu 很好（喜欢）：chu wa yo 喜欢你：chu wa hei yo 什么：more？ 那个。。。（即想说话时的开场，类似于我们的“恩。。。”）： to kei o 再见：??? ???(安宁习 卡色哟)走好，在客人离开的时候主人对客人说的 话 再见：??? ???(安宁习 给色哟）对主人说的话 大家好：you le boon an ning ha xie yoo不要：xi lou 不可以（不行）：an day 怎么了（为什么）：wei o？ 天啊：o more！ 怎么办：o tu kay 知道了：a la so 漂亮：yi pu da 想死吗：chu guo lei 亲爱的：cha ga ya 走：ka（走吧是 ka za） 不要走:ka ji ma 没关系：kang ca na 等一下：ca ga man ni yo 准备好了吗？：jun qi qin nai yo？（这是在《情书》里学的。） 孩子（小孩）：ai gi 外遇：po lang 钱：tong 出来：la wa 但是：han ji ma **君：**xi（大家都知道日韩的女性对男性的尊称都有什么什么君。比如我的桃 子 OPPA，就是 junsoo xi。） 喂（这个称呼表示的是长辈对晚辈，同辈之间，或者特别生气时叫对方的用语， 非敬语哦。）：ya！导演：ka zong ni（但是有时又觉得是“an dong ni”） 好吃：ma ji da 打招呼：yi sa 当然了：ku lo mu (或是 na you ha ji) 当然不是那样了：ku lo mu a ni gu 是的（好的）（表示肯定语气）：nei 好的（表示顺从）：ku dei 不是的（表示所有的否定含义都是这个）：a ni（或者是 a ni ya） 祝你生日快乐：san ri chu ka ha mi da当我郑重地翻过最后一页，合上这位被誉为“英国小说之父”的丹尼尔?笛福在 59 岁 高龄写的著作――《鲁滨逊漂流记》 。读完了这个情节曲折，跌宕起伏的故事之后，我满眶 的热泪情不自禁地夺眶而出。书中的主人公在荒芜人烟的孤岛上生活了 28 年！28 年，多么 惊人的一个数字啊！可见他是何等的勇敢。 作者笛福在书中有句名言：“害怕危险的心理比危险本身还要可怕一万倍。 ”一个 具有大无畏冒险进取精神的人， 即使在恶劣的环境下， 也终将会成为一个成功者， 一个英雄。 面对危险和困难不是退让妥协而是顽强面对，不自暴自弃，也不轻言放弃，勇敢面对，不低 头，就一定能获得成功。如果，还没有抗衡，就对自己说：“啊！我不行的，完蛋了！ ”那 你就真的完蛋了，也不可以面对困难的时候，什么也不去做，等在那里坐以待毙，就算是失 败了，但只要你坚持过，面对过，抗衡过，那么你还是一个英雄，失败并不可怕，没有坚持 面对就放弃才可耻。 勇敢地展开生命的羽翼，永远昂着头面对人生，抵抗风雪，便是生命的真谛。不 管是谁的人生，都不可能一帆风顺，所以遇到困难不要怨天尤人，更不要自暴自弃，把磨难 当做人生中的一次考验，只要你战胜了，你就会变得更加坚强。 肯定句、否定句、一般疑问句和特殊疑问句（1） 它是字母 O 肯定句:It is the letter O. 否定句:It is not the letter O. 一般疑问句:Is it the letter O? （2）这是一只青蛙 肯定句:This is a frog. 否定句:This is not a frog. 一般疑问句:Is this a frog? （3）你是个女王 肯定句:You are a queen. 否定句:You are not a queen.一般疑问句:Are you a queen? （4）我是个女孩 肯定句:I am a girl. 否定句:I am not a girl. 一般疑问句:Am I a girl? （5）她是我妈妈 肯定句:She is my mother. 否定句:She is not my mother. 一般疑问句:Is she my mother? What is this? 这是什么？ How much is it? 这个多少钱？ What kind of movies do you like? 你喜欢哪一类型的电影？ What time is it？ 现在几点钟？ What day is it today? 今天星期几？ When is your birthday? 你的生日是什么时候？ What's your favorite subject? 你最喜爱的科目是什么？ How old are you? 你多大了？ What are you doing?你正在做什么？ How long does it take to fly to Shanghai? 乘飞机到上海需要多长时间？ How long does the opera last? 歌剧演出要多长时间? Who is your teacher? 谁是你的老师？ Where are they? 他们在哪儿？ What do you usually do on weekends? 你在假期通常都做什么？ Which season do you like best? 你最喜欢哪一个季节？ why do you like basketball? 你为什么喜欢篮球？第二单元习作我读了一本由莱曼?弗兰克?鲍姆编写的童话书《绿野仙踪》，这本书把我带进了童话王国， 使我感受到了纯真的梦幻。书中的故事也使我有了很大的改变，我变得比以前更敢、更自信 了。 《绿野仙踪》 讲述了美国堪萨斯州的小姑娘多萝茜被龙卷风卷到了一个叫孟奇金的地方， 好 心的女巫指点她到翡翠城去找奥芝国大术士帮忙送她回家。路上，她先后遇到了稻草人----他需要一副脑子；铁皮樵夫-----他需要一颗心；小胆狮子-----他需要胆量。由于他们的出色 的表现， 大术士帮助他们实现各自的愿望， 稻草人得到了一副脑子； 铁皮樵夫得到了一颗心； 小胆狮子得到了胆量，多萝茜也如愿，带着小狗托托回到了家乡，回到了亲人身边。多萝茜那勇敢的表现、善良的心地、坚强的意志，让我感到自己很渺小，为自己的懦弱 而很不好意思。因为以前，我一看见狗就害怕。有时我会问自己：“如果我是多萝茜，我会 不会像多萝茜一样勇敢地克服重重困难、并帮助其他人呢？”看完这部童话后，我决心像多 萝茜一样鼓足勇气，用不懈地追求和奋斗的精神来面对各种困难，克服学习上、生活上的一 切不利因素，勇敢地挑战自我，我相信我一定能做到！ 我喜欢《绿野仙踪》，它让我有了好朋友---多萝茜；我喜欢《绿野仙踪》，它给我带来快 乐；我喜欢《绿野仙踪》，它给我带来勇气；我喜欢《绿野仙踪》！第四单元习作（漫画）我在语文书上看过这样一则漫画：在一个大森林里，一个人嘴里 叼着 一根烟，拿着一把锋利的斧头砍伐一棵棵大树，而大树也 在哭泣，那个人肩膀上 停了一只啄木鸟，啄木鸟看了看那个人 的脑袋，说：“这段木头里一定有虫。” 不知这副漫画的含义 大家看懂没有，那个人脑袋的确有“虫”，不过此虫非彼虫 ， 这个“虫”指的是那个人破坏生态平衡的心虫， 怪不得啄木鸟说 他“脑袋有 虫”， 不过在我们平时的生活中、 世界上， 这类“脑 袋有虫”的人数不胜数，可 啄木鸟却是寥寥无几。 平时，不少同学的草稿纸只划了几笔就扔进了垃圾桶，要知道， 这些纸可是 一棵棵树木啊；洗手时，水开得挺大，这还不说， 洗完手，也不关水就走了，任 凭水哗哗的流淌，要知道在干旱 地区水是多么宝贵啊；平时，随手将垃圾扔在地 上，既影响环 境又影响美观......要知道， 如今我们这个地球已经受到了极大 的 破坏，可是那些“脑袋有虫”的人却丝毫没有醒悟，他们为了自己的利益破坏环 境：滥砍滥伐、毁坏植被；为了图方便将 污水排入江河，不知有多少河流因此无 法饮用，我们的母亲河 ――黄河已经便得浑浊不堪； 昔日的天府之国――成都的美好风 景已无复存在，土地正向沙漠化进军；大气污染也越来越严重， 几乎处处 是酸雨......在如此触目惊心的事情前，人类似乎没 有觉醒，而人们脑袋里那条 贪婪的虫子越来越大，人们已经被 欲望迷住了双眼。 为了躲避人类的追捕已经疲惫不堪了；昔日称霸海洋的 鲸以濒临灭绝......如今我们必须保护我们这个美丽的地球， 因 为拯救地球就是拯救未来，同学们，请你们照亮你们 内心的明 镜.第四单元习作（倡议书） 亲爱的同学们： 大家好！ &水是生命的源泉&，&电是发展的杠杆&。当前，我国一方面面临 水电资源短缺的困扰，另一方面又存在着严重的水电资源浪费现象。 有水当思无水之苦， 有电当思无电之痛……如果说干旱是缺水缺电的 &天灾&，那么比&天灾&更严重的则是&人祸&。随处可见的人为的浪费 水电，是缺水缺电的直接原因，更是我国水电资源的头号敌人！我们一定要有清醒的认识，牢固树立强烈的忧患和责任意识，认真贯 彻落实科学发展观，按照以人为本、构建和谐社会的要求，为建设和 谐校园、节水型校园贡献一份力量，对此，我发出倡议： 一、节约水光荣，浪费水可耻；节约用水，人人有责。 二、从我做起，从点滴做起，用自己的实际行动节约每一滴水，做到 “惜水如金”；养成一水多用、循环利用的良好习惯。 三、监护水源，树立保护水源就是保护生命的意识；涵养水源， 积极参加植树造林活动；爱护水源，少用洗涤剂，减少水污染。 四、介绍节约用水、合理用水的方法，营造一个人人爱水、人人 节水的良好氛围，大力建设节水型校园。 节水是一场持久战，节水难在意识淡漠，重在宣传推广，贵在点滴坚 持，成于养成习惯。 节水，我们要变认识为行动！ 亲爱的朋友们，让我们共同行动起来，养成良好的用水习惯，从一点 一滴做起，共建人水和谐，让我们的校园碧水蓝天，让我们的世界更 加美好！第五单元习作（第一篇）“卖麻团了，卖麻团了……&每次都是这叫卖声把我从梦中吵醒。 不知怎地，就在最近，我们这来了一个卖麻团的老头子，他每天五点半的时候就开始 叫卖了，无论是平时，还是周末;无论是晴天，还是刮风下雨，都雷打不动。然而直到有一 天，我对这个卖麻团的老爷爷的看法，一下子改变了。 那是一个很晴朗的星期天的早晨，我照例还是被这可恶的叫卖声吵醒，我用被子紧紧 捂住头，心里别提有多狠这老头了，难得有这么一个休息日，也不让人好好睡个懒觉，真是 可恶!忽然，在声声刺耳的叫卖声中，传来了一声又一声百灵鸟的啼鸣声，清脆悦耳，宛转 悠扬，我的心不禁一动，反正也睡不着，不如出去看看早晨的景色，顺便看看这到底是一个 怎样的老人，手艺究竟如何，于是我掀开被子，麻利地穿了起来。 我拿了点零钱，走出家门，嘿，好晴朗的天哟，天空一碧如洗，阳光灿烂，我的心一 下子也开朗起来。 我顺着叫卖声找寻那位卖麻团的老人， 远远就看见一个老人被一大群孩子 围着，我心想，怪不得天天来叫卖，原来生意不错。我赶忙紧走几步，走近一看，心中不由 得有些吃惊， 我心中卖麻团的是一个全身沾满油污的人， 没想到眼前的这位老人他穿一件洗 得发白的旧军装，却上下整洁得体，显得干练精神。我暗暗产生了几分好感，递过手中的零钱，说：&给我来两个。&老人一手接过钱，另一只手拿起一双筷子和一只方便袋，夹出两只 麻团放到袋子里温和地说：&小心，拿好。&我接过来，拿出一只，咬了一口，真是又香又脆， 口感极佳，味道好极了，我不禁对他喜欢起来，细细地打量着他：饱经风霜的脸上留下道道 岁月刻磨的皱纹，身体硬朗，脸上始终对孩子洋溢着可亲的笑容，怪不得孩子围了一大圈， 怪不得孩子这么愿意吃，怪不得天天来叫卖…… 谁知刚走了几步就被老人叫住了，我的心不由得&咯噔&一下，心想我不是刚付过钱吗， 怎么，想讹我?我心中刚升起的对他的好感一下子风吹云散，荡然无存了，我愤怒地转过身， 刚想发作。谁知这位老人从口袋里掏出四块半钱递给我，歉意地对我说：&小同学，刚才忙， 没功夫找你钱，实在对不祝&我莫名其妙，他忙说：&你给了我五块钱。&我恍然大悟，脸红 一阵白一阵， 不知怎么办才好， 老人看到我这样， 关切地问： &小同学， 怎么啦?哪儿不舒服?& 我忙把老人递过的钱又伸了过去，说：&没什么，全买了。&老人将剩下的麻团全给了我，说： &多两只，免费赠送。&老人笑呵呵地说：&这就算是亏本大甩卖，买五赠一吧。&说完，头也 不回地走了…… 望着老人越来越远的背影，我对他产生了无比的敬意，我的心中也不禁感慨万分：平 时所接触的小商小贩们，他们都是以次充好，以少充多，欺骗顾客，人与人之间哪有什么诚 信?今天，这个老人为我上了生动的一课，人间需要诚信，更要爱惜诚信!9 月的一天，一群憨态可掬的小鸭子，在鸭妈妈的带领下，漫步 在温哥华街头。小鸭子们个个都挺胸抬头，迈着整齐的方步，给 大城市增添了一丝丝生机。 走着走着， 小鸭子们的目光被一座座高大美丽的建筑物吸引 了过去。 鸭妈妈却还聚精会神地看着对面红绿灯的颜色变化。 绿灯了，鸭妈妈起身向前，刚迈开大步，就听见：“扑通， 扑通！”的两声。随后，其他小鸭子们“嘎嘎”的有序的口号声 也乱成了一锅粥。鸭妈妈赶紧向后望去，6 只小鸭宝宝只剩下 4只了。这时，鸭妈妈发现剩下的小宝宝后面，有一个“大洞”。 鸭妈妈急忙奔过去，洞里有两只小鸭子正嘎嘎叫着。 鸭妈妈慌了神，但一想：自己要沉着冷静地应对困难。鸭妈 妈若有所思地原地转圈。她突然发现：在不远处，有一位面目和 蔼的巡警。 鸭妈妈立马吩咐小鸭子呆在这儿别动， 自己迅速朝巡警飞奔 而去。 “嘎嘎嘎！”的向巡警诉说。 巡警一脸茫然地蹲下身来。鸭妈妈发现：不论自己怎么说， 都是徒劳的，他根本听不懂！于是，鸭妈妈改变“作战方式”。 她死咬住巡警的裤脚不放，向外拉他，示意发生了什么事情。 巡警也似乎明白了什么似的。跟着鸭妈妈来到马路上。一个 没有井盖的下水道边的 4 只站立不动的小鸭子吸引力他的注意。 他走过来， 抚摸小鸭子们。 鸭妈妈把头向下伸。 巡警向下看了看， 发现了两只落水的小鸭子。 他终于想到了办法，向渔具店的老板借来渔网，把小鸭 子捞了上来。 鸭妈妈高兴极了，一只翅膀放在前胸，一只翅膀向外张开， 弯着脖子，向巡警绅士般地“鞠了一躬”。 巡警目送小鸭子摇摇摆摆的上路了。我的爱好如同夏夜的点点繁星，数不胜数。看！这颗“星星” 好耀眼呀！仔细一瞧，原来是我最喜欢的爱好――硬笔书法。 一年级、二年级时，我的字写得很大，一个字是普通同学字的三 倍！但是到了六年级，我发现了字的重要性。打那起，我就开始了我 的书法生涯！ 刚开始的几天里，我写得十二万分地认真，但后来，我就有 点坐不住了――写几个字就不想写了， 觉得好麻烦！ 妈妈告诉我： “你 是‘新建的厕所三天香’，练吧！照这样，你的字永远是最差的！” 妈妈的话激起了我的恒心，我偏要做给妈妈看！于是，我每天抽出半 小时或一小时的时间来练字，每每快要泄气时，我就闭上眼睛，深呼 吸三次， 然后再继续。 渐渐地， 我爱上了硬笔书法。 每当看见“目”、 “口”、 “因”之类的带有方框的汉字宝贝， 它们仿佛在告诉我： “第 二画要有顿笔哦！”每当遇见“江”、“河”、“湖”、“海”之类 的是三点水偏旁的汉字爷爷， 它们仿佛佝偻着腰对我说： “年纪大了， 腰也直不起来了，所以，要记住三点水偏旁要成我弯腰的形状哟！” 每当看见“然”、“熟”、“羔”、“烈”之类的偏旁是四点水的汉字木柴时，它们仿佛在悄悄对我说：“四点水要像堆木柴一样，朝一 个方向堆呢……” 我爱硬笔书法，因为它陶冶了我的情操，同时，我要告诉大 家：真心地爱某一种事物，并不是“三天打鱼，两天晒网”的事，而 是持之以恒；并不是三心二意，而是万分专注。我们应把爱好当作一 种快乐，细细地品味它、享受它！1/2×3/5 3/5×5/6 2/5×1/3 1/7×1/5 1/2×1/5 9\3 乘 3\9 8\3 乘 6\5能简算的要简算1. 3/7 × 49/9 - 4/3 2. 8/9 × 15/36 + 1/27 3. 12× 5/6 C 2/9 ×3 4. 8× 5/4 + 1/4 5. 6÷ 3/8 C 3/8 ÷6 6. 4/7 × 5/9 + 3/7 × 5/9 7. 5/2 -（ 3/2 + 4/5 ） 8. 7/8 + （ 1/8 + 1/9 ） 9. 9 × 5/6 + 5/6 10. 3/4 × 8/9 - 1/3 11. 7 × 5/49 + 3/14 12. 6 ×（ 1/2 + 2/3 ） 13. 8 × 4/5 + 8 × 11/5 14. 31 × 5/6 C 5/6 15. 9/7 - （ 2/7 C 10/21 ） 16. 5/9 × 18 C 14 × 2/7 17. 4/5 × 25/16 + 2/3 × 3/4 18. 14 × 8/7 C 5/6 × 12/15 19. 17/32 C 3/4 × 9/24 20. 3 × 2/9 + 1/3 21. 5/7 × 3/25 + 3/7 22. 3/14 ×× 2/3 + 1/6 23. 1/5 × 2/3 + 5/6 24. 9/22 + 1/11 ÷ 1/2 25. 5/3 × 11/5 + 4/3 26. 45 × 2/3 + 1/3 × 1527. 7/19 + 12/19 × 5/6 28. 1/4 + 3/4 ÷ 2/3 29. 8/7 × 21/16 + 1/2 30. 101 × 1/5 C 1/5 × 21 六年级上册的内容―汇集和整理大量word文档,专业文献,应用文书,考试资料,教学教材,办公文档,教程攻略,文档搜索下载下载,拥有海量中文文档库,关注高价值的实用信息,我们一直在努力,争取提供更多下载资源。From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Reduplication in process in which the (or part of it) or even the whole word is repeated exactly or with a slight change. Reduplication is used in to convey a grammatical function, such as plurality, intensification, etc., and in to create new words. It is often used when a speaker adopts a tone more "expressive" or figurative than ordinary speech and is also often, but not exclusively, in meaning. Reduplication is found in a wide range of languages and language groups, though its level of Reduplication is the standard term for this phenomenon in the linguistics literature. Other terms that are occasionally used include cloning, doubling, duplication, repetition, and . This article contains phonetic symbols. Without proper , you may see instead of characters. Reduplication is often described in one of two different ways: either (1) as reduplicated segments (sequences of /) or (2) as reduplicated units ( or ). In addition to phonological description, reduplication often needs to be described as a reduplication of linguistic (i.e. , , ). As a result, reduplication is interesting theoretically as it involves the interface between phonology and morphology. The base is the word (or part of the word) that is to be copied. The reduplicated element is called the reduplicant, often abbreviated as RED or sometimes just R. In reduplication, the reduplicant is most often repeated only once. However, in some languages, reduplication can occur more than once, resulting in a tripled form, and not a duple as in most reduplication. Triplication is the term for this phenomenon of copying two times. has both reduplication and triplication. Basic Verb Reduplication Triplication k?ul  'to sing' k?uk?ul  'singing' k?uk?uk?ul  'still singing' mejr  'to sleep' mejmejr  'sleeping' mejmejmejr  'still sleeping' (Rehg 1981) Triplication occurs in other languages, e.g. , , , , (Hokkien). (i.e. the doubling of consonants or vowels) is considered to be a form of reduplication. The term dupleme has been used (after morpheme) to refer to different types of reduplication that have the same meaning. Full reduplication involves a reduplication of the entire word. For example, derives reciprocal forms from forms by total reduplication: 'ourselves' [ɡinɡin] 'we (to) us' (ɡin-ɡin) 'themselves' 'they (to) them' (Watters 2002) Another example is from Musqueam "dispositional" formation: 'to capsize' [k'????k'???] 'likely to capsize' (k'????-k'???) 'to speak' [q?élq?el] 'talkative' (q?él-q?el) (Shaw 2004) Partial reduplication involves a reduplication of only part of the word. For example, forms words meaning 'to wear X' by reduplicating the last consonant-vowel-consonant (CVC) sequence of a base, i.e. base+CVC: 'to wear a belt' (kagir-gir) 'to wear socks' (takin-kin) (Moravsik 1978) Many languages often use both full and partial reduplication, as in the example below: Full reduplication Partial reduplication mahuta  'to sleep' mahutamahuta  'to sleep constantly' mamahuta  'to sleep (plural)' (mahuta-mahuta) (ma-mahuta) Reduplication may be initial (i.e. ), final (i.e. ), or internal (i.e. ), e.g. Initial reduplication in (CV- prefix): 'afternoon' 'late afternoon' (?u-?u?ab) 'a long time' 'a long time (in years)' (?a-?a?aj) (Healey 1960) Final reduplication in (-CCV suffix): 'tall (singular)' [h?skaska] 'tall (plural)' (h?ska-ska) 'good (singular)' [wa?te?te] 'good (plural)' (wa?te-?te) (Shaw 1980, Marantz 1982, Albright 2002) Internal reduplication in (-CV- infix): 'he/she walks' (singular) 'they walk' (plural) (sa-va-vali) 'he/she loves' (singular) 'they love' (plural) (a-lo-lofa) (Moravcsik 1978, Broselow and McCarthy 1984) le tamaloa 'the man' (singular) 'men' (plural) (tama-lo-loa) Internal reduplication is much less common than the initial and final types. A reduplicant can copy from either the left edge of a word (left-to-right copying) or from the right edge (right-to-left copying). There is a tendency for prefixing reduplicants to copy left-to-right and for suffixing reduplicants to copy right-to-left: Initial L → R copying in Oykangand language of ): [alɡalɡal] 'straight' (alg-algal) Final R → L copying in : achisiasia (achisia-sia) ?imbuchaochao 'to come apart' (?imbuchao-chao) (McCarthy and Prince 1996) Copying from the other direction is possible although less common: Initial R → L copying in : 'they break' (Reichard 1959) Final L → R copying in : 'ground (abs. sg.)' (nute-nut) 'gopher (abs. sg.)' (jil?e-jil) (Marantz 1982) Internal reduplication can also involve copying the beginning or end of the base. In Quileute, the first consonant of the base is copied and inserted after the first vowel of the base. Internal L → R copying in : 'he put it on' 'he put it on (frequentative)' (tsi-ts-ko) [tuko:jo?] [tutko:jo?] 'snow here and there' (tu-t-ko:jo’) (Broselow and McCarthy 1984) In Temiar, the last consonant of the root is copied and inserted before the medial consonant of the root. Internal R → L copying in language of ): 'to shoot (perfective)' 'to shoot (continuative)' 'to marry (perfective)' 'to marry (continuative)' (s-ɡ-l?ɡ) (Broselow and McCarthy 1984, Walther 2000) A rare type of reduplication is found in (an Austroasiatic language of Malaysia). "Expressive minor reduplication" is formed with an initial reduplicant that copies the first and last segment of the base: 'to vomit' 'appearance of nodding constantly' [cwcruha:w] 'monsoon rain' (cw-cruha:w) (Diffloth 1973 All of the examples above consist of only reduplication. However, reduplication often occurs with other phonological and morphological process, such as , of non-reduplicating material, etc. For instance, in a new '-ish' adjective form is derived from other words by suffixing the reduplicated first consonant of the base followed by the segment [oχ]. This can be written succinctly as -Coχ. Below are some examples: [kaq] 'red' → [kaqkoχ] 'reddish'  (kaq-k-oχ) [q'an] 'yellow' → [q'anq'oχ] 'yellowish'  (q'an-q'-oχ) [ja?] 'water' → [ja?joχ] 'watery'  (ja?-j-oχ)   (Dayley 1985) has a similar suffix that is used in forming the plural of some nouns: -aC (where C is the last consonant of the base): [toɡ] 'ditch' → [toɡaɡ] 'ditches'  (toɡ-a-ɡ) [?ad] 'lump of meat' → [?adad] 'lumps of meat'  (?ad-a-d) [w?:l] 'boy' → [w?:lal] 'boys'  (w?:l-a-l)   (Abraham 1964) This combination of reduplication and affixation is commonly referred to as fixed-segment reduplication. initial reduplication also involves of the first consonant in the distributive plural and in repetitive verbs: [nowiu] 'ox' → [nonnowiu] 'ox (distributive)'  (no-n-nowiu) [hódai] 'rock' → [hohhodai] 'rock (distributive)'  (ho-h-hodai) [kow] 'dig out of ground (unitative)' → [kokkow] 'dig out of ground (repetitive)'  (ko-k-kow) [ɡ?w] 'hit (unitative)' → [ɡ?ɡɡ?w] 'hit (repetitive)'  (ɡ?-ɡ-ɡ?w)   (Haugen forthcoming) Sometimes gemination can be analyzed as a type of reduplication. This section requires . (May 2008) This section requires . (December 2009) overapplication underapplication backcopying base-reduplicant "identity" ( terminology: BR-faithfulness) tonal transfer/non-transfer family, reduplication is used to form plurals (among many other functions): rumah "house", rumah-rumah "houses". In pre-1972 orthography, 2 was shorthand for the reduplication that forms plurals: orang "person", orang-orang or orang2 "people". This orthography has resurfaced widely in text messaging and other forms of electronic communication. uses reduplication to increase the force of a : go, "", go-go "examine with attention". also uses reduplication: 人 rén for "person", 人人 rénrén for "everybody". does it too: 時 toki "time", tokidoki 時々 "sometimes, from time to time". Both languages can use a special written 々 to indicate reduplication, although in Chinese the iteration mark is no longer used in standard writing and is often found only in . formerly used reduplication to form a number of forms, especially in the or . In the older Indo-European languages, many such verbs survive: spondeo, spopondi (, "I vow, I vowed") λε?πω, λ?λοιπα (, "I leave, I left") δ?ρκομαι, δ?δορκα (Greek, "I see, I saw"; these Greek examples exhibit as well as reduplication) háitan, haíháit (, "to name, I named") None of these sorts of forms survive in modern English, although they existed in its parent . A number of verbs in the Indo-European languages exhibit reduplication in the stem rather than the perfect stem, often with a different vowel from that used for the perfect: Latin gigno, genui ("I beget, I begat") and Greek τ?θημι, ?θηκα, τ?θηκα (I place, I placed, I have placed). Other Indo-European verbs used reduplication as a compare Latin sto ("I stand") and sisto ("I remain"). All of these Indo-European inherited reduplicating forms are subject to reduction by other phonological laws. Finnish slang sometimes uses reduplicated nouns to indicate genuinity, completeness, originality and being uncomplicated as opposed to being fake, incomplete, complicated or fussy. It can be thought as compound word formation. For example, S?in j??tel?? ja karkkia, sek? tietysti ruokaruokaa. "I ate ice cream and candy, and of course food-food". Here, "food-food" is contrasted to "junk-food". One may say "En ollut eilen koulussa, koska olin kipe?. Siis kipe?kipe?" ("I wasn't at school yesterday because I was sick. Sick-sick, that is"), meaning one was actually suffering from an illness and is not making up excuses as usual. ruoka "food", ruokaruoka "proper food", as opposed to snacks peli "game", pelipeli "complete game",as opposed to a puhelin "phone", puhelinpuhelin "phone for talking", as opposed to a pocket computer kauas "far away", kauaskauas "unquestionably far away" koti "home", kotikoti "home of your parents", as opposed to one's current place of residence Reduplication comes after inflection in Finnish. While reduplication is intelligible to most Finns, its usage is confined mostly to subgroups of young women and children (and possibly fathers of young children when talking to their children). However, most young women and children do not use reduplication. Reduplication has a somewhat childish connotation, and may be perceived as annoying. In , the verbs gah or goh "go", cho "come", la or lo "let" and aafa or aafo "begin" reduplicate when combined with other verbs. Chrischtboum schmücke. literal translation: Christmas tree translation She comes to adorn our Christmas tree. literal translation: translation: She doesn't let him sleep. In some , reduplication is used to mark both diminution and plurality, one process applying to each end of the word, as in the following example from . Note that the data was transcribed in a way that is not comparable to the , but the reduplication of both initial and final portions of the root is clear: ?ōk!Emē'’n 'knife' reduplicated as ?uk!?uk!Emen'’me’n 'plural small knives' (Haeberlin ). During the period 25–50 weeks after birth, all typically developing infants go through a stage of reduplicated or canonical (Stark 198, Oller, 1980). Canonical babbling is characterized by repetition of identical or nearly identical consonant-vowel combinations, such as 'nanana' or 'didididi'. It appears as a progression of language development as infants experiment with their vocal apparatus and home in on the sounds used in their native language. Canonical/reduplicated babbling also appears at a time when general rhythmic behavior, such as rhythmic hand movements and rhythmic kicking, appear. Canonical babbling is distinguished from earlier syllabic and vocal play, which has less structure. used partial reduplication of a consonant and e in many verb forms. The perfect or preterite (past) tense of some , , and verbs preserves this reduplication: Ancient Greek λ?ω lúō 'I free' vs. λ?λυκα léluka "I have freed" Gothic hald "I hold" vs. haíhald (h?hald) "I/he held" Latin currō "I run" vs. cucurrī "I ran" or "have run" Proto-Indo-European also used reduplication for . Ancient Greek preserves this reduplication in the present tense of some verbs. Usually, but not always, this is reduplication of a consonant and i, and contrasts with e-reduplication in the perfect: δ?δωμι dídōmi "I give" (present) δ?δωκα dédōka "I have given" (perfect) *σ?σδω sísdō → ?ζω hízō "I set" (present) *σ?σδομαι sésdomai → ?ζομαι hézomai "I sit down" ( from sd-, in *sed-os → ?δο? hédos "seat, abode") Reduplication in nouns was rare, the best example being Proto-Indo-European *k?é-k?l-os ‘’ (cf. k?klas ‘neck’, cakrá ‘wheel’), which doubled *k?el-o- (cf. kelan ‘wheel’, pel ‘ball’), itself likely a deverbative of *k?elh?- ‘to turn’. English has several types of reduplication, ranging from informal expressive vocabulary (the first four forms below) to grammatically meaningful forms (the last two below). Rhyming reduplication: hokey-pokey, razzle-dazzle, super-duper, boogie-woogie, teenie-weenie, walkie-talkie, hoity-toity, wingding, ragtag, easy-peasy. Exact reduplications (baby-talk-like): bye-bye, choo-choo, night-night, no-no, pee-pee, poo-poo. Couscous is not an English example for reduplication, since it is taken from a French word which has a origin. In South African English, 'now-now' means 'immediately' (whereas an ordinary 'now' can also mean 'somewhat later'). reduplications: bric-a-brac, chit-chat, criss-cross, ding-dong, jibber-jabber, kitty-cat, knick-knack, pitter-patter, splish-splash, zig-zag, flimflam. In the ablaut reduplications, the first vowel is almost always a and the reduplicated ablaut variant of the vowel is a . can be use e.g. baby-shmaby, cancer-schmancer and fancy-schmancy. This process is a feature of from , starting among the of , then the and then the whole country. Only the last of the above types is , meaning that examples of the first three are fixed forms and new forms are not easily accepted. reduplication: In the sentence "John's apple looked redder and redder," the reduplication of the indicates that the comparative is becoming more true over time, meaning roughly "John's apple looked progressively redder as time went on." In particular, this construction does not mean that John's apple is redder than some other apple, which would be a possible interpretation in the absence of reduplication, e.g. in "John's apple looked redder." With reduplication, the comparison is of the object being compared to itself over time. Comparative reduplication always combines the reduplicated comparative with "and". This construction is common in speech and is used even in formal speech settings, but it is less common in formal written texts. Although English has simple constructs with similar meanings, such as "John's apple looked ever redder," these simpler constructs are rarely used in comparison with the reduplicative form. Comparative reduplication is fully and clearly changes the meaning of any comparative to a temporal one, despite the absence of any time-related words in the construction. For example, the temporal meaning of "The frug seemed wuggier and wuggier" is clear: Despite not knowing what a frug is or what wugginess is, we know that the apparent wugginess of the frug was increasing over time, as indicated by the reduplication of the comparative "wuggier". : Exact reduplication can be used with contrastive focus (generally where the first noun is ) to indicate a literal, as opposed to figurative, example of a noun, or perhaps a sort of of the noun, as in "Is that carrot cheesecake or carrot CAKE-cake?". This is similar to the Finnish use mentioned below. is in some cases a type of reduplication, which may be regarded as non-standard or incorrect. More can be learned about English reduplication in Thun (1963), Cooper and Ross (1975), and Nevins and Vaux (2003). In addition to having some reduplicated presents and perfects, Latin uses reduplication for some , such as quisque "whoever" and ubiubi "wherever". Latin jingles. There are also several complete two word sentences such as: Cǒmam cōmam. "I shall tidy my hair." While not common in Dutch, reduplication does exist. Most, but not all (e.g., pipi, blauwblauw (laten), taaitaai (gingerbread)) reduplications in Dutch are (e.g., koeskoes, bonbon, (ik hoorde het) via via) or imitative (e.g., tamtam, tomtom). Another example is a former safe sex campaign slogan in Flanders: Eerst bla-bla, dan boem-boem (First talk, then have sex). In Dutch the verb "gaan" (to go) can be used as an auxiliary verb, which can lead to a triplication: we gaan (eens) gaan gaan (we are going to get going). The use of gaan as an auxiliary verb with itself is considered incorrect, but is commonly used in Flanders. Numerous examples of reduplication in Dutch (and other languages) are discussed by Dani?ls (2000). makes use of reduplication to emphasize the meaning of the word repeated and to denote a plural or event happening in more than one place. For example, krap means "to scratch one's self," while krap-krap-krap means "to scratch one's self vigorously", whereas "dit het plek-plek gere?n", means "it rained here and there". Reduplication in Afrikaans has been described extensively in the literature - see for example Botha (1988), Van Huyssteen (2004) and Van Huyssteen & Wissing (2007). Further examples of this include: "koes" (to dodge) being reduplicated in the sentence "Piet hardloop koes-koes weg" (Piet is running away while constantly dodging / cringing); "sukkel" (to struggle) becoming "sukkel-sukkel" ( struggling on); and "kierang" (to cheat) becoming "kierang-kierang" to indicate being cheated on repeatedly. reduplication was used both to create new words or words associations (tran-tran, via via, leccalecca) and to intensify the meaning (corri!, corri! "run!, run!"). Common in , particularly but not exclusively for onomatopoeic action descriptions: "Spagnoli venir...boum boum... Inglis venir...boum boum bezef... Francés venir...tru tru tru...chapar." ("The Spaniards came, cannonaded, and left. The English came, cannonaded heavily, and left. The French came, trumpeted on bugles, and captured it.") Common uses for reduplication in are the creation of for , whereby Louise becomes Loulou, and becomes Zizou; and in many nursery words, like dada 'horsie' (vs. cheval 'horse'), tati 'auntie' (vs. tante 'aunt'), or tonton 'unkie' (vs. oncle 'uncle'). and , reduplication is not uncommon and it has been used for both the creation of new words (including many from ) and expressions, for example, Romanian: morm?i, ?ur?ur, d?rd?i, expessions talme?-balme?, harcea-parcea, terchea-berchea, ?ac-pac, calea-valea, hodoronc-tronc, and recent slang, trendy-flendy. Catalan: balandrim-balandram, baliga-balaga, banzim-banzam, barliqui-barloqui, barrija-barreja, bitllo-bitllo, bub-bub, bum-bum, but-but, catric-catrac, cloc-cloc, cloc-piu, corre-corrents, de nyigui-nyogui, farrigo-farrago, flist-flast, fru-fru, gara-gara, gloc-gloc, gori-gori, leri-leri, nap-buf, ning-nang, ning-ning, non-non, nyam-nyam, nyau-nyau, nyec-nyec, nyeu-nyeu, nyic-nyic, nyigo-nyigo, nyigui-nyogui, passa-passa, pengim-penjam, pif-paf, ping-pong, piu-piu, poti-poti, rau-rau, ringo-rango, rum-rum, taf-taf, tam-tam, tau-tau, tic-tac, tol·le-tol·le, tric-trac, trip-trap, tris-tras, viu-viu, xano-xano, xau-xau, xerric-xerrac, xim-xim, xino-xano, xip-xap, xiu-xiu, xup-xup, zig-zag, ziga-zaga, zim-zam, zing-zing, zub-zub, zum-zum. In colloquial Mexican Spanish it is common to use reduplicated adverbs such as luego luego (after after) meaning "immediately", or casi casi (almost almost) which intensifies the meaning of 'almost'. serves for various kinds of intensifying of the meaning and exists in several forms: a or repeated (either exact or inflected reduplication), and forms similar to . Reduplication is a very common practice in , to the extent that there are jokes about it. Mainly due to the mixed nature of the Persian language, most of the reduplication comes in the form of a phrase consisting of a Persian word -va- (and) and an Arabic word, like "Taghdir-Maghdir". Reduplication is particularly common in the city of in southwestern . One can further categorize the reduplicative words into "True" and "Quasi" ones. In true reduplicative words, both words are actually real words and have meaning in the language in which it is used. In quasi-reduplicative words, at least one of the words does not have a meaning. Some examples of true reduplicative words in Persian are: "Xert-o-Pert" (Odds and ends); "?ert-o-Pert" (Nonsense); "?arand-o-Parand" (Nonsense); "?b-o-Tāb" (much detail). Among the quasi-reduplicative words are "Zan-o-man" (wife); "Davā-Mavā" (Argument); "Talā-malā" (jewelry); and "Raxt-o-Paxt" (Items of Clothing). In general reduplication in Persian, is mainly a mockery of words with non-Persian origins. Typically all Indo-Aryan languages, like , , use partial or echoic reduplication in some form or the other. It is usually used to sound casual, or in a suggestive manner. It is often used to mean etcetera. For example in Hindi, chai-shai (chai means tea, while this phrase means tea or any other supplementary drink or tea along with snacks). Quite common in casual conversations are a few more examples like shopping-wopping, khana-wana. Reduplication is also used in for the same purpose. South Asian languages are also rich in other forms of reduplication: morphological (expressives), lexical (distributives), and phrasal (aspectual). morphological: ???? ??? ??? ????? ???? manaa-t hur-hur daaT.un yete mind-in longing choking comes 'Yearning desire floods into my heart.' lexical: 'Each-each boy take one-one chair.' phrasal: ????????? ??????? ??????? ??? ?????? pillavā?u na?ustū na?ustū pa?i pōyā?u child walking walking fall went 'The child fell down while walking.' Reduplication also occurs in the 3th[] ga?a (verb class) of the Sanskrit language: bibheti "he fears", bibharti "he bears", juhoti "he offers", dadāti, "he gives". Even though the general idea is to reduplicate the verb root as a prefix, several sandhi rules change the final outcome. A number of nouns are formed by reduplication. As in other languages, the meaning is not that of a true plural, but collectives that refer to a set of the same or related objects, often in a particular situation. For example, "rangi changi"* describes an object that is extremely or vividly colorful, like a crazy mix of colors and/or patterns, perhaps dizzying to the eye. The phrase "hina mina" means "scattered," like a large collection of objects spilled (or scampering, as in small animals) in all different directions. The basic Nepalese word for food, "khana" becomes "khana sana" to refer to the broad generality of anything served at a meal. Likewise, "chiya" or tea (conventionally made with milk and sugar) becomes "chiya siya": tea and snacks (such as biscuits or cookies). *Please note, these examples of Nepalese words are spelled with a simplified Latin only, not as exact spellings. In , a word can be reduplicated while replacing the initial consonants (not being m, and possibly missing) with m. The effect is that the meaning of the original word is broadened. For example, tabak means "plate(s)", and tabak mabak then means "plates, dishes and such". This can be applied not only to nouns but to all kinds of words, as in ye?il me?il meaning "green, greenish, whatever". Although not used in formal written Turkish, it is a completely standard and fully accepted construction. Reduplication is commonly used only with 'suurensuuri' 'big of big', 'pienenpieni' 'small of small' and 'hienonhieno' 'fine of fine' but other adjectives may sometimes be duplicated as well, where a is too strong an expression, somewhat similarly to Slavic languages. The structure may be written also separately as 'genitive' 'nominative', which may create confusion on occasion (f.e. 'suurensuuri jalka' 'big of big foot' vs. 'suuren suuri jalka' 'big foot of a big one') Reduplication is usually rhyming. It can add emphasis: 'pici' (tiny) -& ici-pici (very tiny) and it can modify meaning: 'néha-néha' ('seldom-seldom': seldom but repeatedly), 'erre-arra' ('this way-that way', meaning movement without a definite direction), 'ezt-azt' ('this-that', meaning 'all sort of things'), Reduplication often evokes a sense of playfulness and it's quite common when talking to small children. Reduplication is a common phenomenon in and is usually used to form a verb or for emphasis. piga 'to strike'; pigapiga 'to strike repeatedly' okukuba (oku-kuba) 'to strike'; okukubaakuba (oku-kuba-kuba) 'to strike repeatedly, to batter' tambalalá 'to stretch one's legs'; tambalalá-tambalalá to stretch one's legs repeatedly' Popular names that have reduplication include frequently reduplicate consonants, though often not the vowels that appear next to the consonants in some verb form. This can take the shape of reduplicating the antepenultimate consonant (usually the second of three), the last of two consonants, or the last two consonants. In the , reduplication is used in nouns and adjectives. For stress, as in ??? ??? (Gever Gever) where the noun ??? 'man' - is duplicated to mean a manly man, a man among man. Or as in ??? ??? (le-aht le-aht) where the adverb ??? 'slowly' - is duplicated to mean very slowly. Meaning every, as in ??? ??? (yom yom) where the noun ??? 'day' is duplicated to every day, day in day out, day by day. Some nouns and adjectives can also be made into diminutives by reduplication of the last two consonants (biconsonantal reduplication), e.g. ??? (Kelev) = Dog ????? (Klavlav) = Puppy ???? (Chatul) = Cat ?????? (Chataltul) = Kitten ??? (Lavan) = White ????? (Levanban) = Whitish ??? (Katan) = Small ????? (Ktantan) = Tiny Reduplication in Hebrew is also productive for the creation of verbs, by reduplicating the root or part of it e.g.: dal (??) 'poor,spare' & dilel (???) 'to dilute' but also dildel (????) 'to impoverish, to weaken'; nad (??) 'to move, to nod' & nadad (???) 'to wander' but also nidned (????) 'to swing, to nag'. In , verb roots can be reduplicated three different ways. These can result in verbs, nouns, or adjectives (which are often derived from verbs). From the root sbr 'break', antepenultimate reduplication produces t?s?babb?r? 'it was shattered' and biconsonantal reduplication produces t?sb?r?bb?r? 'it was shattered repeatedly' and s?b?rbari 'a shard, a shattered piece'. From the root kHb 'pile stones into a wall', since the second radical is not fully specified, what some call "hollow", the antepenultimate reduplication process reduplicates the k, which is by some criteria antepenultimate, and produces akakab? 'pile stones repeatedly'. In , reduplication is used in verbs and adjectives to form adverbs. Many Burmese words, especially adjectives such as ??? ('beautiful' [l?a?pa?]), which consist of two syllables (when reduplicated, each syllable is reduplicated separately), when reduplicated (??? → ?????? 'beautifully' [l?a?l?a? pa?pa?]) become . This is also true of many Burmese verbs, which become adverbs when reduplicated. Some nouns are also reduplicated to indicate plurality. For instance, ????, means "country," but when reduplicated to ?????????, it means "many countries" (as in ????????????????, "international"). Another example is ??????, which means "kinds," but the reduplicated form ??????????? means "multiple kinds." A few measure words can also be reduplicated to indicate "one or the other": ????? (measure word for people) → ????????????? (someone) ?? (measure word for things) → ??????? (something) Adjective reduplication is common in , typically denoting emphasis, less acute degree of the quality described, or an attempt at more indirect speech: xiǎoxiǎo de 小小的 (small), chòuchòu de 臭臭的 (smelly) (this can also reflect a "cute", juvenile or informal register). In the case of adjectives composed of two characters (morphemes), generally each of the two characters is reduplicated separately: piàoliang 漂亮 (beautiful) reduplicates as piàopiàoliangliang 漂漂亮亮. Verb reduplication is also common in Standard Chinese, conveying the meaning of informal and temporary character of the action. It is often used in imperative expressions, in which it lessens the degree of imperativity: zuòzuò 坐坐 (sit (for a while)), děngděng 等等 (wait (for a while)). Compound verbs are reduplicated as a whole word: xiūxixiūxi 休息休息 (rest (for a while)). This can be analyzed as an instance of omission of "一" (originally, e.g., "坐一坐" or "等一等" ) or "一下" (originally, e.g., "坐一下"). Noun reduplication, though nearly absent in Standard Chinese, is found in the southwestern dialect of . For instance, in , bāobāo 包包 (handbag) is used whereas Beijing use bāor 包儿 (one exception is the colloquial use of bāobāo 包包 by non-Sichuan Mandarin speakers to reflect a perceived fancy or attractive purse). However, there are few nouns that can be reduplicated in Standard Chinese, and reduplication denotes generalisation and uniformity: rén 人 (human being) and rénrén 人人 (everybody (in general, in common)), jiājiāhùhù 家家户户 (every household (uniformly)) - in the latter jiā and hù additionally duplicate the meaning of household, which is a common way of creating compound words in Chinese. A small number of native nouns have forms produced by reduplication (possibly with ), such as 人々 hitobito "people" (h → b is rendaku) – these are written with the "々" to indicate duplication. This formation is not and is limited to a small set of nouns. Similarly to Standard Chinese, the meaning is not that of a true , but collectives that refer to a large, given se for example, the formal English equivalent of 人々 would be "people" (collective), rather than "persons" (plural individuals). Japanese also contains a large number of formed by reduplication of a syllable. These words include not only , but also words intended to invoke non-auditory senses or psychological states. By one count, approximately 43% of Japanese mimetic words are formed by full reduplication, and many others are formed by partial reduplication, as in がささ? ga-sa-sa- (rustling) – compare English "a-ha-ha-ha". Words called t? láy are found abundantly in . They are formed by repeating a part of a word to form new words, altering the meaning of the original word. Its effect is to sometimes either increase or decrease the intensity of the adjective, or to generalize a word's meaning. It is often used as a literary device (like alliteration) in poetry and other compositions but is also prevalent in everyday speech. In some cases, the word's tone may be reduplicated in addition to an initial or final sound (see ). Examples of reduplication increasing intensity: ch? → ch? tr? (final L→R plus tone): to point → to point about ?au → ?au ?i?ng (final L→R): to hurt → to hurt horribly khó → khó kh?n (final L→R): difficult → severely difficult m?nh → m?nh m? (final L→R): strong → very strong nh? → nhè nh? (initial full, excluding tone): gently → as gently as possible r?c → r?c r? (final L→R): flaring → blazing Examples of reduplication decreasing intensity: nh? → nho nh? (initial full, excluding tone): small → somewhat small ?? → ?o ?? (initial full, excluding tone): red → somewhat red xanh → xanh xanh (full): blue/green → somewhat blue/green xinh → xinh xinh (full): pretty → cute Examples of generalization: ?au → ?au ??n (final L→R): painful → pain and suffering h?c → h?c hành (final L→R): to study (something) → to study (in general) l?ng → l?ng l?o (final L→R plus tone): watery → loose, insecure máy → máy móc (final L→R plus tone): machine → machinery nhanh → nhanh nh?n (final L→R): rapid → nimble Examples of blunt sounds or physical conditions: lo?ng xo?ng (R→L plus tone) — sound of glass breaking to pieces or metallic objects falling to the ground h?t h?i → h?t h? h?t h?i or h?t ha h?t h?i (compound) — hard gasps → in extreme hurry, in panic, panic-stricken l?c ??c (R→L) — the sound of hard, blunt (and likely wooden) objects hitting against each other → disagreements and conflicts inside a group or an organisation Examples of emphasis without a change in meaning: khúm núm → khúm na khúm núm (compound): to cower v? v?n → v? va v? v?n (compound): silly In colloquial speech, almost any arbitrary word can be reduplicated to express a dismissive attitude: phim → phim phéo (final L→R): movie → movies and stuff As seen above, disyllabic words undergo a complex transformation: &first syllable& &left edge of second syllable plus a vowel& &first syllable& &second syllable&. uses reduplication for several purposes, including emphasis and pluralization. The includes a reduplication sign, ?, indicating that the word or phrase preceding it is to be pronounced twice. Reduplication in Khmer, like many Mon–Khmer languages, can express complex thoughts. Khmer also uses a form of reduplication known as "synonym compounding", in which two phonologically distinct words with similar or identical meanings are combined, either to form the same term or to form a new term altogether. This section requires . (June 2013) The wide use of reduplication is certainly one of the most prominent grammatical features of Indonesian and Malay (as well as of other South-East Asian and Austronesian languages). and , reduplication is a very productive process. It is used for expression of various grammatical functions (such as verbal aspect) and it is part in a number of complex morphological models. Simple reduplication of nouns and pronouns can express at least three meanings: Diversity or non-exhaustive plurality: Burung-burung itu juga diekspor ke luar negeri = "All those birds are also exported out of the country". Conceptual similarity: langit-langit = " etc." & langit = "sky"; jari-jari = " etc." & jari = "finger" etc. Pragmatic accentuation: Saya bukan anak-anak lagi! "I am not a child anymore!" (anak = "child") Reduplication of an adjective can express different things: Adverbialisation: Jangan bicara keras-keras! = "Don't speak loudly!" (keras = hard) Plurality of the corresponding noun: Rumah di sini besar-besar = "The houses here are big" (besar = "big"). Reduplication of a verb can express various things: Simple reduplication: Pragmatic accentuation: Kenapa orang tidak datang-datang? = "Why aren't people coming?" Reduplication with me- prefixation, depending on the position of the prefix me-: Repetition or continuation of the action: Orang itu memukul-mukul anaknya: "That man continuously beat his child"; Reciprocity: Kedua orang itu pukul-memukul = "Those two men would beat each other". Notice that in the first case, the nasalisation of the initial consonant (whereby /p/ becomes /m/) is repeated, while in the second case, it only applies in the repeated word. in the , upon which the national language "Filipino" was based, reduplication is employed productively in multiple parts of speech. Reduplication of the root, prefix or infix is employed to convey different in verbs. In "Mag- verbs" reduplication of the root after the prefix "mag-" or "nag-" changes the verb from the infinitive form, or perfective aspect, respectively, to the contemplated or imperfective aspect. Thus: magluto inf/actor trigger-cook "to cook" or "cook!" () nagluto actor trigger-cook "cooked" nagluluto actor trigger-reduplication-cook "cook" (as in "I cook all the time) or "is/was cooking" magluluto inf/actor trigger-rdplc-cook (contemplated) "will cook" (frequently referred to as "object focus" verbs) reduplication of part the infix and the stem occur: lutuin cook-inf/object trigger-cook "to cook" linuto object trigger infix-cook (perf-cook) "cooked" liniluto object trigger infix-reduplication-cook "cook"/"is/was cooking" lulutuin rdp-cook-object trigger "will cook". Adjectives and adverbs employ morphological reduplication for many different reasons such as plurality agreement when the adjective modifies a plural noun, intensification of the adjective or adverb, and sometimes because the prefix forces the adjective to have a reduplicated stem". Agreement (optional, plurality, and agreement with a plural noun, is entirely optional in Tagalog (e.g. a plural noun does not have to have a plural article marking it"): "Ang magandang puno" "the beautiful tree". "Ang mga magagandang puno" "the beautiful trees". The entire adjective is repeated for intensification of adjectives or adverbs: Magandang maganda ang kabayo "the horse is very pretty" The complete superlative prefix pagka- demands reduplication of the first syllable of the adjective's stem: "Ang pagkagagandang puno" "The most beautiful tree (and there are none more beautiful anywhere)" Reduplication of nouns happens in Tagalog, but is far less productive, and more sporadic. Examples of such nouns formed by reduplication are "" "ice cream" (lit. "mix mix") and "tago-tago" " or even (lit. "latent-latent"). In , reduplication is used to turn adjectives into . () uses reduplication in a number of ways. Reduplication can convey a simple plural meaning, for instance wahine "woman", waahine "women", tangata "person", taangata "people". Biggs calls this "infixed reduplication". It occurs in a small subset of "people" words in most Polynesian languages. Reduplication can convey emphasis or repetition, for example mate "die", matemate "die in numbers"; and de-emphasis, for example wera "hot" and werawera "warm". Reduplication can also extend t for instance paki "pat" becomes papaki "slap or clap once" and pakipaki "applaud"; kimo "blink" becomes kikimo "close eyes firmly". Main article: Reduplication is common in many Australian place names due to their Aboriginal origins. Examples: Turramurra, Parramatta, Wooloomooloo. In the language of the people of southeastern Australian, plurals are formed by doubling a word, hence 'Wagga' meaning crow becomes meaning 'place of many crows'. This occurs in other place names deriving from the Wiradjuri language including Gumly Gumly, and Book Book. 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(Also published by Indiana University Linguistics Club in 1973, republished 1997.) in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. (Lexicon of Linguistics) Institute of Linguistics, : Hidden categories: