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ParticipateFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the ancient city.
For the modern Italian city, see .
For the Ancient Roman leader, see .
For other uses, see .
The city of Pompeii was an
town-city near modern
in the Italian region of , in the territory of the
of . Pompeii, along with
and many villas in the surrounding area, was mostly destroyed and buried under 4 to 6 m (13 to 20 ft) of
Researchers believe that the town was founded in the seventh or sixth century BC by the
or Oscans. It came under the domination of Rome in the 4th century BC, and was conquered and became a Roman colony in 80 BC after it joined an unsuccessful rebellion against the . By the time of its destruction, 160 years later, its population was approximately 11,000 people, and the city had a complex water system, an , gymnasium and a port.
The eruption destroyed the city, killing its inhabitants and burying it under tons of ash. Evidence for the destruction originally came from a surviving letter by , who saw the eruption from a distance and described the death of his uncle , an admiral of the Roman fleet, who tried to rescue citizens. The site was lost for about 1,500 years until its initial rediscovery in 1599 and broader rediscovery almost 150 years later by Spanish engineer
in 1748. The objects that lay beneath the city have been well-preserved for centuries because of the lack of air and moisture. These artifacts provide an extraordinarily detailed insight into the life of a city during the . During the excavation, plaster was used to fill in the voids in the ash layers that once held human bodies. This allowed one to see the exact position the person was in when he or she died.
Pompeii has been a tourist destination for over 250 years. Today it has
status and is one of the most popular tourist attractions in Italy, with approximately 2.5 million visitors every year.
Pompeii (pronounced ) in Latin is a second
plural (Pompeiī, -ōrum). According to Theodor Kraus, "The root of the word Pompeii would appear to be the
word for the number five, pompe, which suggests that either the community consisted of five hamlets or, perhaps, it was settled by a family group (gens Pompeia)."
The Temple of Jupiter with
in the distance
The ruins of Pompeii are located near the modern suburban town of
(nowadays written with one 'i'). It stands on a spur formed by a lava flow to the north of the mouth of the
(known in ancient times as the Sarnus).
Pompeii, Italy. Pompeii - Forum and Vesuvius. Brooklyn Museum Archives, Goodyear Archival Collection
Today it is some distance inland, but in ancient times it would have been nearer to the coast. Pompeii is about 8 km (5.0 mi) away from Mount Vesuvius. It covered a total of 64 to 67 hectares (170 acres) and was home to approximately 11,000 to 11,500 people on the basis of household counts. It was a major city in the region of Campania.
The archaeological digs at the site extend to the street level of the 79 AD deeper digs in older parts of Pompeii and core samples of nearby drillings have exposed layers of jumbled
that suggest that the city had suffered from other seismic events before the eruption. Three sheets of sediment have been found on top of the lava that lies below the city and, mixed in with the sediment, archaeologists have found bits of animal bone,
and plants.
has determined the oldest of these layers to be from the 8th–6th centuries BC (around the time the city was founded). The other two strata are separated either by well-developed soil layers or Roman pavement, and were laid in the 4th century BC and 2nd century BC. It is theorized that the layers of the jumbled sediment were created by large , perhaps triggered by extended rainfall.
The town was founded around the 6th–7th century BC by the
or Oscans, a people of central Italy, on what was an important crossroad between ,
and . It had already been used as a safe port by Greek and
sailors. According to , Pompeii was also captured by the , and in fact recent[] excavations have shown the presence of Etruscan inscriptions and a 6th-century BC . Pompeii was captured for the first time by the Greek colony of , allied with , between 525 and 474 BC.
In the 5th century BC, the
conquered it (and all the other towns of ); the new rulers imposed their architecture and enlarged the town. After the
(4th century BC), Pompeii was forced to accept the status of socium of Rome, maintaining, however, linguistic and administrative autonomy. In the 4th century BC, it was fortified. Pompeii remained faithful to Rome during the .
The present
was built in the 2nd century BC as the city's most important religious structure.
Pompeii took part in the
that the towns of Campania initiated against Rome, but in 89 BC it was besieged by . Although the battle-hardened troops of the Social League, headed by , helped in resisting the Romans, in 80 BC Pompeii was forced to surrender after the conquest of Nola, culminating in many of Sulla's veterans' being given land and property, while many of those who went against Rome were ousted from their homes. It became a Roman colony with the name of Colonia
Pompeianorum. The town became an important passage for goods that arrived by sea and had to be sent toward Rome or
along the nearby .
It was fed with water by a spur from
built c. 20 BC the main line supplied several other large towns, and finally the naval base at . The
in Pompeii is well preserved, and includes many details of the distribution network and its controls.
Illustrated reconstruction, from a / research partnership, of how the
may have looked before Mt. Vesuvius erupted
The same location today.
Annotated map of Pompeii
The main Forum in Pompeii
The Forum with Vesuvius in the distance
The excavated city offers a snapshot of Roman life in the 1st century, frozen at the moment it was buried on 24 August AD 79. , the baths, many houses, and some out-of-town villas like the
remain well preserved.
Details of everyday life are preserved. For example, on the floor of one of the houses (Sirico's), a famous inscription Salve, lucru ("Welcome, profit") indicates a trading company owned by two partners, Sirico and Nummianus (but this could be a nickname, since nummus means " money"). Other houses provide details concerning professions and categories, such as for the "laundry" workers (). Wine jars have been found bearing what is apparently the world's earliest known marketing pun (technically a ), Vesuvinum (combining
and the Latin for wine, vinum).[]
The numerous
carved on the walls and inside rooms provides a wealth of information regarding , the form of Latin spoken colloquially rather than the literary language of the classical writers.
Portrait of the baker Terentius Neo with his wife found on the wall of a Pompeii house. ()
In 89 BC, after the final occupation of the city by Roman General , Pompeii was finally annexed by the . During this period, Pompeii underwent a vast process of infrastructural development, most of which was built during the Augustan period. These include an , a
with a central
(cella natatoriua) or swimming pool and an
that provided water for more than 25 street fountains, at least four public baths, and a large number of private houses () and businesses. The amphitheatre has been cited by modern scholars as a model of sophisticated design, particularly in the area of crowd control.
The aqueduct branched out through three main pipes from the , where the waters were collected before being dis in case of extreme , the water supply would first fail to reach the public baths (the least vital service), then private houses and businesses, and when there would be no water flow at all, the system would fail to supply the public fountains (the most vital service) in the streets of Pompeii. The pools in Pompeii were used mostly for decoration.
The large number of well-preserved
provide information on everyday life and have been a major advance in
of the ancient world, with the innovation of the
(First/Second/Third Style). Some aspects of the culture were distinctly , including frequent use of the phallus as
or good-luck charm in various types of decoration. A large collection of erotic votive objects and frescoes were found at Pompeii. Many were removed and kept until recently in
at the University of Naples.
At the time of the eruption, the town may have had some 20,000 inhabitants, and was located in an area in which Romans had their holiday villas. William Abbott explains, "At the time of the eruption, Pompeii had reached its high point in society as many Romans frequently visited Pompeii on vacations." It is the only ancient town of which the whole topographic structure is known precisely as it was, with no later modifications or additions. Due to the difficult terrain, it was not distributed on a regular plan as most Roman towns were, but its streets are straight and laid out in a grid in the Roman tradition. They are laid with polygonal stones, and have houses and shops on both sides of the street. It followed its
and its , centered on the forum.
Modern archaeologists have excavated garden sites and urban domains to reveal the agricultural staples in Pompeii’s economy prior to 79 A.D. Pompeii was fortunate to have a fruitful, fertile region of soil for harvesting a variety of crops. The soils surrounding Mount Vesuvius even preceding its eruption have been revealed to have good water-holding capabilities, implying access to productive agriculture. The ’s airflow provided hydration to the soil despite the hot, dry climate.
The rural areas surrounding Pompeii had an abundant agricultural plot that was considered to be heavily fertile and capable of producing much larger quantities of goods than the city itself would need. It is speculated that much of the flat land in , surrounding the areas of Pompeii was dedicated to grain and wheat production. , ,
were all produced by the locals in Pompeii. These grains, along with wine and olive oil, were produced in abundance to be exported to other regions.
Evidence of wine imported nationally from Pompeii in its most prosperous years can be found from recovered artifacts such as wine bottles in Rome. For this reason, vineyards were of utmost importance to Pompeii’s economy. Agricultural policymaker
suggested that each vineyard in Rome produced a quota of three
of wine per , otherwise the winery would be uprooted. The nutrient-rich lands near Pompeii were extremely efficient at this and were often able to exceed these requirements by a steep margin, therefore providing the incentive for local wineries to establish themselves. While wine was exported for Pompeii’s economy, the majority of the other agricultural goods were likely produced in quantities relevant to the city’s consumption.
Remains of large formations of constructed wineries were found in , covered by cemented casts from the eruption of Vesuvius. It is speculated that these historical vineyards are strikingly similar in structure to the modern day vineyards across Italy.
have also been found in close proximity to the wineries and served as water wells for the produce and livestock.
food plant remains via roots, seeds and pollens of certain items revealed commodities and agricultural goods that were likely exchanged prior to 79 AD. These remains from gardens in Pompeii, Herculaneum and Roman villa at
revealed several alternatives for the obvious wine and grains, mainly involving fruits and nuts. Walnuts, figs, pears, onions, garlic, beans, peaches, carob, chestnuts and grapes were some primary produce items that were consumed and recorded by researchers at the sites in proximity to Vesuvius. The date was the only food that was solely imported from global regions rather than produced, namely to the Ancient Romans from the "Land of the Date".
Besides the forum, many other services were found: the
(great food market), the
(mill), the
(sort of bar that served cold and hot beverages), and
(small restaurants). An amphitheatre and two theatres have been found, along with a palaestra or . A hotel (of 1,000 square metres) was found a short di it is now nicknamed the "Grand Hotel Murecine".
In 2002, another discovery at the mouth of the
revealed that the port also was populated and that people lived in , within a system of channels that suggested a likeness to
to some scientists.
Main article:
The inhabitants of Pompeii had long been used to minor quaking (indeed, the writer
wrote that earth tremors "were not particularly alarming because they are frequent in Campania"), but on 5 February 62, there was a
which did considerable damage around the bay and particularly to Pompeii. It is believed that the earthquake would have registered between about 5 and 6 on the current .
On that day in Pompeii there were to be two sacrifices, as it was the anniversary of Augustus being named "Father of the Nation" and also a feast day to honour the guardian spirits of the city. Chaos followed the earthquake. Fires, caused by oil lamps that had fallen during the quake, added to the panic. Nearby cities of
were also affected.
Temples, houses, bridges, and roads were destroyed. It is believed that almost all buildings in the city of Pompeii were affected. In the days after the earthquake,
ruled the city, where theft and starvation plagued the survivors. In the time between 62 and the eruption in 79, some rebuilding was done, but some of the damage had still not been repaired at the time of the eruption. Although it is unknown how many, a considerable number of inhabitants moved to other cities within the Roman Empire while others remained and rebuilt.
An important field of current research concerns structures that were being restored at the time of the eruption (presumably damaged during the earthquake of 62). Some of the older, damaged paintings could have been covered with newer ones, and modern instruments are being used to catch a glimpse of the long hidden frescoes. The probable reason why these structures were still being repaired around seventeen years after the earthquake was the increasing frequency of smaller quakes that led up to the eruption.
Main article:
By the 1st century AD, Pompeii was one of a number of towns located near the base of the volcano, Mount Vesuvius. The area had a substantial population which grew prosperous from the region's renowned agricultural fertility. Many of Pompeii's neighboring communities, most famously Herculaneum, also suffered damage or destruction during the 79 eruption. The eruption occurred on August 24, just one day after , the festival of the Roman god of , including that from volcanoes.
Pompeii and other cities affected by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius. The black cloud represents the general distribution of ash and cinder. Modern coast lines are shown.
A multidisciplinary
study of the eruption products and victims, merged with numerical simulations and experiments, indicates that at Vesuvius and surrounding towns
was the main cause of death of people, previously believed to have died by ash . The results of the study, published in 2010, show that exposure to at least 250 °C (482 °F) hot surges at a distance of 10 kilometres (6 miles) from the vent was sufficient to cause instant death, even if people were sheltered within buildings.
The people and buildings of Pompeii were covered in up to twelve different layers of , in total 25 meters deep, which rained down for about 6 hours.
provided a first-hand account of the eruption of Mount Vesuvius from his position across the
at , in a version which was written 25 years after the event. His uncle, , with whom he had a close relationship, died while attempting to rescue stranded victims. As admiral of the fleet, Pliny the Elder had ordered the ships of the Imperial Navy stationed at
to cross the bay to assist evacuation attempts. Volcanologists have recognised the importance of Pliny the Younger's account of the eruption by calling similar events "".
The eruption was documented by contemporary historians and is generally accepted as having started on 24 August 79, relying on one version of the text of Pliny's letter. However the archeological excavations of Pompeii suggest that the city was buried about three months later. This is supported by another version of the letter which gives the date of the eruption as November 23.
People buried in the ash appear to be wearing heavier clothing than the light summer clothes that would be expected in August. The fresh fruit and vegetables in the shops are typical of October, and conversely the summer fruit that would have been typical of August was already being sold in dried, or conserved form. Wine fermenting jars had been sealed over, and this would have happened around the end of October. Coins found in the purse of a woman buried in the ash include one which features a fifteenth
acclamation among the 's titles. These cannot have been minted before the second week of September. So far there is no definitive theory as to why there should be such an apparent discrepancy.
"Garden of the Fugitives". Plaster casts of v many casts are in the Archaeological Museum of Naples.
After thick layers of ash covered the two towns, they were abandoned and eventually their names and locations were forgotten. The first time any part of them was unearthed was in 1599, when the digging of an underground channel to divert the river Sarno ran into ancient walls covered with paintings and inscriptions. The arch he unearthed a few more frescoes, then covered them over again, and nothing more came of the discovery. A wall inscription had mentioned a decurio Pompeii ("the town councillor of Pompeii") but its reference to the long-forgotten Roman city was missed.
Fontana's act of covering over the paintings has been seen both as censorship – in view of the frequent sexual content of such paintings – and as a broad-minded act of preservation for later times as he would have known that paintings of the hedonistic kind later found in some Pompeian villas were not considered in good taste in the climate of the . This view is bolstered by reports[] of later excavators who felt that sites they were working on had already been visited and reburied.[] Even many recovered household items had a sexual theme.
Herculaneum was properly rediscovered in 1738 by workmen digging for the foundations of a summer palace for the King of Naples, . Pompeii was rediscovered as the result of intentional excavations in 1748 by the Spanish military engineer . These towns have since been excavated to reveal many intact buildings and wall paintings. Charles of Bourbon took great interest in the findings even after becoming king of Spain because the display of antiquities reinforced the political and cultural power of Naples.
directed the fi he was followed in 1764 by military engineer Franscisco la Vega. Franscisco la Vega was succeeded by his brother, , in 1804. During the French occupation Pietro worked with Christophe Saliceti.
took charge of the excavations in 1863. During early excavations of the site, occasional voids in the ash layer had been found that contained human remains. It was Fiorelli who realized these were spaces left by the decomposed bodies and so devised the technique of injecting
into them to recreate the forms of Vesuvius's victims. This technique is still in use today, with a clear
now used instead of plaster because it is more durable, and does not destroy the bones, allowing further analysis.
led to an unknown number of discoveries being hidden away again. A wall fresco which depicted , the ancient god of sex and fertility, with his extremely enlarged , was covered with plaster, even the older reproduction below was locked away "out of prudishness" and opened only on request and only rediscovered in 1998 due to rainfall.
In 1819, when King
visited the Pompeii exhibition at the
with his wife and daughter, he was so embarrassed by the erotic artwork that he decided to have it locked away in a , accessible only to "people of mature age and respected morals". Re-opened, closed, re-opened again and then closed again for nearly 100 years, it was briefly made accessible again at the end of the 1960s (the time of the ) and was finally re-opened for viewing in 2000. Minors are still allowed entry to the once secret cabinet only in the presence of a guardian or with written permission.
A large number of
from Pompeii are preserved in the .
Pompeii has been a popular tourist destination for over 250 it was on the . By 2008, it was attracting almost 2.6 million visitors per year, making it one of the most popular tourist sites in Italy. It is part of a larger Vesuvius National Park and was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1997. To combat problems associated with tourism, the governing body for Pompeii, the Soprintendenza Archaeological di Pompei have begun issuing new tickets that allow for tourists to also visit cities such as
as well as the , to encourage visitors to see these sites and reduce pressure on Pompeii.
A paved street. The blocks in the road allowed pedestrians to cross the street without having to step onto the road itself which doubled up as Pompeii's drainage and sewage disposal system. The spaces between the blocks allowed vehicles to pass along the road.
Pompeii is also a driving force behind the economy of the nearby town of . Many residents are employed in the tourism and hospitality business, serving as taxi or bus drivers, waiters or hotel operators. The ruins can be easily reached on foot from the
train stop called Pompei Scavi, directly at the ancient site. There are also car parks nearby.
Excavations in the site have generally ceased due to the moratorium imposed by the superintendent of the site, Professor Pietro Giovanni Guzzo. Additionally, the site is generally less accessible to tourists, with less than a third of all buildings open in the 1960s being available for public viewing today. Nevertheless, the sections of the ancient city open to the public are extensive, and tourists can spend several days exploring the whole site.
Main article:
Pompeii was the setting for the British comedy
and the movie of the series. Pompeii also featured in the second episode of the fourth season of revived BBC drama series , named "", which featured Caecilius as a character.
In 1971, the rock band
recorded the live concert film , performing six songs in the ancient Roman amphitheatre in the city. The audience consisted only of the film's production crew and some local children.
is a song by the British band , released 24 February 2013. The lyrics refer to the city and the eruption of .
is a 2014 German-Canadian
produced and directed by .
Fencing in the temple of
prevents vandalism of the site, as well as theft.
Main article:
The objects buried beneath Pompeii were well-preserved for almost two thousand years. The lack of air and moisture allowed for the objects to remain underground with little to no deterioration, which meant that, once excavated, the site had a wealth of sources and evidence for analysis, giving detail into the lives of the Pompeiians. However, once exposed, Pompeii has been subject to both natural and man-made forces which have rapidly increased their rate of deterioration.
Weathering, erosion, light exposure, water damage, poor methods of excavation and reconstruction, introduced plants and animals, tourism, vandalism and theft have all damaged the site in some way. Two-thirds of the city has been excavated, but the remnants of the city are rapidly deteriorating.
The concern for conservation has continually troubled archaeologists. The ancient city was included in the
by the , and again in
and in . In 1996 the organization claimed that Pompeii "desperately need[ed] repair" and called for the drafting of a general plan of
and interpretation. The organization supported conservation at Pompeii with funding from
Today, funding is mostly directed into cons however, due to the expanse of Pompeii and the scale of the problems, this is inadequate in halting the slow decay of the materials. An estimated US$335 million is needed for all necessary work on Pompeii.[] A recent study has recommended an improved strategy for interpretation and presentation of the site as a cost-effective method of improving its conservation and preservation in the short term.
The 2,000-year-old Schola Armatorum (House of the Gladiators) collapsed on 6 November 2010. The structure was not open to visitors, but the outside was visible to tourists. There was no immediate determination as to what caused the building to collapse, although reports suggested water infiltration following heavy rains might have been responsible. There has been fierce controversy after the collapse, with accusations of neglect.
, 1850s photographer of Pompeii
, a project with the Italian winery Mastroberardino to replant the vineyards of Pompeii
Volcanic destruction
, a city in Colombia that suffered a similar fate in 1985
, a pre-Columbian farming village in El Salvador known as the "Pompeii of the Americas"
, former capital city buried by volcanic ash from the Soufrière Hills volcano in the 1990s
, town similarly destroyed by the volcanic eruption of Mount Pelee, in 1902
special In the Shadow of Vesuvius (1987) explores the sites of Pompeii and Herculaneum, interviews (then) leading archaeologists, and examines the events leading up to the eruption of Vesuvius.
: Pompeii: Buried Alive (1996), an
television documentary narrated by .
(2003), an hour-long drama produced for the
that portrays several characters (with historically attested names, but fictional life-stories) living in Pompeii, Herculaneum and around the , and their last hours, including a
and his wife, two , and . It also portrays the facts of the eruption. It is heavily influenced by 's book The Last Days of Pompeii (see ), which – while being responsible for the popularization of Pompeii in Western culture – has been dismissed for its lack of historical credibility. To give some historical reality to the characters, the death throes of the characters portrayed are based on actual skeletons and bodies found during excavations in the 18th century, while Pliny the Elder's death is shown as based on the accounts of how he actually died. Although in the story the narrator uses reports that
died from inhaling the fumes of the final and greatest , as many reports have found, he most likely had suffered a
or stroke.[]
Pompeii and the 79 AD eruption (2004), a 120-minute
120’ documentary.
Pompeii Live (June 28, 2006, 8 pm), a
production featuring a live archaeological dig at Pompeii and Herculaneum
Pompeii: The Mystery of the People Frozen in Time (2013), a
drama documentary presented by Dr. .
Main article:
Ozgenel, Lalo, A Tale of Two Cities: In Search of Ancient Pompeii and Herculaneum
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(-licensed photos, laser scans, panoramas), data from a / research partnership
mainly focusing on wall-paintings from Pompeian houses and villas
N. Purcell, R. Talbert, T. Elliott, S. Gillies. . Pleiades 2012.
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