the lexical difference
英语毕业论文-美国英语与英国英语在词汇上的差异[毕业论文网] Key Words American E British E the lexical difference[gap=277]关键词 美国英语；英国英语；词汇差异
基于48个网页-
vocabulary differences
求翻译：scroll knob 是什么意思? ... 它能平静我们浮躁的心 >> It can be tranquil our impetuous heart 词汇差异 >> Vocabulary differences 日常用语 >> Everyday language ...
基于13个网页-
Differences in vocabulary
开始翻译 ... 我希望你努力学习 I hope you study hard 词汇差异 Differences in vocabulary 腿坏了的这把椅子需要修理 The legs of the chairs need of repair ...
基于10个网页-
Glossary differences
求翻译：一旦你得到自由，你又会怀念曾经忙碌的生活 是什么意思? ... 姓氏， Surnames. 词汇差异 Glossary differences 这个房间朝南 The room facing South ...
基于6个网页-
lexical diversity
difference of vocabulary proficiency
Northwest Medical Education
lexicon variation
- 引用次数：1
参考来源 - 新加坡华语特色词语考察
lexical differences
- 引用次数：1
参考来源 -
&2,447,543篇论文数据，部分数据来源于
词汇部分则以共时比较的方法考察七个方言点的词汇差异体现及形成差异的原因。
In the lexis part, the essay uses synchronic comparison to analyze differences in lexis of seven dialects and investigate reasons of difference.
造成两岸词汇差异的原因主要是社会原因，包括语言政策的不同、社会生活的差别、特定区域文化的作用等。
The causes of these differences mainly derive from social elements such as the differences in language policy, in social life style and in the uniqueness of an area.
主要选取临颍方言中与普通话词汇差异较大的若干子系统进行分析，从中看出临颍方言词汇的特色以及临颍方言的文化特色。
Select Linying major dialect differences with Mandarin vocabulary larger number of sub. Systems analysis, from which to see Linying Dialects Linying dialect features and cultural characteristics.
$firstVoiceSent
- 来自原声例句
请问您想要如何调整此模块？
感谢您的反馈，我们会尽快进行适当修改！
请问您想要如何调整此模块？
感谢您的反馈，我们会尽快进行适当修改！HSC Glossary of Key Words Flashcards -
Please sign in to share these flashcards. We'll bring you back here when you are done.
We weren't able to detect the audio language on your flashcards. Please select the correct language below.
Chinese, Pinyin
Chinese, Simplified
Chinese, Traditional
Japanese, Romaji
Math / Symbols
Azerbaijani
Belarusian
Chinese, Pinyin
Chinese, Simplified
Chinese, Traditional
Indonesian
Japanese, Romaji
Lithuanian
Luba-Kasai
Luxembourgish
Macedonian
Marshallese
Math / Symbols
Other / Unknown
Portuguese
Tohono O'odham
Vietnamese
Western Frisian
audio not yet available for this language
Chinese, Pinyin
Chinese, Simplified
Chinese, Traditional
Japanese, Romaji
Math / Symbols
Azerbaijani
Belarusian
Chinese, Pinyin
Chinese, Simplified
Chinese, Traditional
Indonesian
Japanese, Romaji
Lithuanian
Luba-Kasai
Luxembourgish
Macedonian
Marshallese
Math / Symbols
Other / Unknown
Portuguese
Tohono O'odham
Vietnamese
Western Frisian
audio not yet available for this language
Save changes
&&&HSC Glossary of Key Words
Hsc Glossary Of Key Words
Please sign in to add to folders.
You have created 2 folders. Please upgrade to Cram Premium to create hundreds of folders!
Toggle Off
Alphabetize
Toggle Off
Front First
Toggle Off
Both Sides
Toggle Off
How to study your flashcards.
Right/Left arrow keys: Navigate between flashcards.right arrow keyleft arrow key
Up/Down arrow keys: Flip the card between the front and back.down keyup key
H key: Show hint (3rd side).h key
A key: Read text to speech.a key
Play button
Play button
Click to flip
Click or Press Spacebar to Begin &
10 Cards in this Set
Account for: state reasons for, report on. Give an account of: narrate a series of events or transactions
Identify components and the relat draw out and relate implications
Show how things are similar or different
Use, utilise, employ in a particular situation
Appreciate
Make a judgement about the value of
Make a judgement of value, quality, outcomes, results or size
Ascertain/determine from given facts, figures or information
Make clear or plain
Arrange or include in classes/categories
M put together items or arguments
Ready To Get Started?3DFx graphics card. A type of graphics
card that features a sophisticated coprocessor used to manipulate an image
so that it appears more realistic. Complicated calculations are required
in order to perform actions such as smoothing jagged shapes or showing
the shadows that an object might cast.
Access control. See User validation.
Access time. In terms of storage devices,
the access time refers to the average time taken to locate a specific
item of data. Access times are normally given in milliseconds, for example
a typical hard disk drive might have an access time of 11 ms.
Active content. Describes a method
by which a browser can restrict access to WWW pages that have been rated
for their content.
Active-X. A programming language standard
developed by Microsoft which permits complex and graphical customer applications
to be written and then accessed from a web browser. An example might be
a form for calculating interest on a loan. A competitor to Java.
Actors. People, software or other
devices that interface with a system. See Use-case.
Ad clicks. An IFABC standard indicating
the number of audited occasions a web banner or interstitial has been
clicked on by a user to view an advert.
Adaptive system. In general, an adaptive
system has the ability to monitor and regulate its own performance. In
many cases, an adaptive system will be able to respond fully to changes
in its environment by modifying its behaviour.
Address book. A folder that contains
frequently used e-mail addresses. Rather than identifying other users
by their e-mail addresses, individuals or groups can be given aliases
or nicknames. E-mail addressed to an alias is automatically sent to the
user(s) associated with that name.
Adoption levels. The proportion of
the population/businesses that have access to the Internet, are influenced
by it or purchase using it.
Agent. The term agent is used to describe
a specialised program that automatically searches the Internet for information
meeting a user’s requirements.
Alias. The process of sending e-mail
messages to specific individuals or groups of users can be simplified
by making use of aliases. An alias — sometimes known as a nickname
— usually consists of a description and the e-mail addresses of those
grouped under the alias.
Alpha release and alpha testing. Alpha
releases are preliminary versions of the software released early in the
build process. They usually have the majority of the functionality of
the system in place, but may suffer from extensive bugs. The purpose of
‘alpha testing’ is to identify these bugs and any major problems
with the functionality and usability of the software. Alpha testing is
usually conducted by staff inside the organisation developing the software
or by favoured customers.
Analogue. Analogue data is continuous
in that an infinite number of values between two given points can be represented.
As an example, the hands of a clock are able to represent every single
possible time of the day.
Annotation. A note or message that
can be attached to a document. Voice annotations are spoken messages that
can be embedded within a document.
Anti-virus. An anti-virus is a benevolent
virus program that copies itself to the boot sectors of unprotected floppy
disks. If another virus attempts to overwrite the anti-virus, it displays
a message on the screen warning the user of infection. See Computer virus.
Apple Macintosh. A family of personal
computers produced by Apple Computers. Although less popular than IBM-compatible
personal computers, the Apple Macintosh is widely used for professional
desktop publishing applications, graphics and animation.
Applets. Small programs with limited
functions typically running from within a web browser.
Applications backlog. An applications
backlog occurs when the demand for new applications by users exceeds the
capacity of the IS department or IS outsourcing company to develop them.
Over a period of a year a large number of applications are in the queue
of required new work.
Applications generator. An applications
generator performs an action or creates a computer program based on a
set of requirements given by the user. Many applications generators allow
users to define a series of actions or requirements by arranging icons
on a special design screen. The resulting design is then converted into
a series of instructions or an executable program.
Applications portfolio. The range
of different types of business information systems deployed within an
organisation.
Artificial intelligence (AI). Artificial
intelligence (AI) methods attempt to make a computer system behave in
the same way a human being. One application for AI is in natural language
processing, where users can communicate with a computer system using English-like
statements.
Assembly language. Assembly language
represented an attempt to simplify the process of creating computer programs.
Symbols and abbreviations were used to create sequences of instructions.
An assembler was used to translate a completed assembly language program
into the machine code required by the computer.
Asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL).
A relatively new development in telecommunications, ADSL makes use of
conventional telephone lines to provide extremely high data transmission
Asynchronous. When collaborators send
messages that can be accessed at a later time these are known as asynchronous.
Asynchronous exchange occurs with e-mail or discussion groups.
Attributes of information quality.
A group of characteristics by which the quality of information can be
assessed. These attributes are normally grouped into three categories:
time, content and form. Examples of attributes of information quality
include accuracy, reliability and timeliness.
Audits. This describes the process
of monitoring an organisation’s hardware and software resources.
In general, audits are used as a deterrent against theft and the use of
illegal software.
Autoresponder. This describes a program
that automatically responds to incoming e-mail messages by scanning for
key words or phrases and returning an appropriate reply.
Backbones. High-speed communications
links used to enable Internet communications across a country and internationally.
Back door. The back door is a section
of program code that allows a user to circumvent security procedures in
order to gain full access to an information system.
Backup site. A backup site houses
a copy of the organisation’s main data processing facilities, including
hardware, software and up-to-date data files. In the event of an emergency,
processing can be switched to the backup site almost immediately so that
the organisation’s work can continue.
Balanced scorecard. A framework for
setting and monitoring business performance. Metrics are structured according
to customer issues, internal efficiency measures, financial measures and
innovation.
Bandwidth. The term bandwidth is often
used to describe how many pieces of data can be transmitted or received
at one time by a given device. Bandwidth is usually expressed in hertz
(Hz) or in bits or bytes per second.
Banner. A rectangular graphic displayed
on a web page for the purposes of advertising. It is normally possible
to perform a click-through to access further information. Banners may
be static or animated.
Bar code. A bar code is a means of
displaying a unique identification number as a series of thick and thin
lines. The sequence and width of the lines in the bar code can be translated
into a sequence of digits. Bar code numbers are normally produced according
to specific method. The Universal Product Code, for example, is a standard
method for creating and using bar codes.
Bar code reader. A bar code reader
measures the intensity of a light beam reflected from a printed bar code
to identify the digits making up a unique identification number. The digits
making up the identification number are also printed at the foot of the
bar code. If a label containing a bar code becomes damaged or cannot be
read for some other reason, it may still be possible to enter the identification
number manually.
Batch processing. Data is ‘post-processed’
following collection, often at times when the workload on the system is
lower. Batch processing usually occurs without user interaction as a ‘background
job’.
Baud. A simple means of measuring
the performance of a modem or other device. Early modems operated at speeds
of 1200 baud, the equivalent of approximately 100 characters per second.
Data transmission rates can also be expressed in bits per second (bps).
In general, the higher the baud rate or bps value, the faster and more
efficient the device.
Benchmarks. This describes the process
of testing the performance of computer equipment. Having carried out a
series of benchmark tests, the results can be compared against similar
items in order to make the best selection.
Bespoke development. An IS is developed
‘from scratch’ by an IS professional to suit the business requirements
of the application.
Beta release and beta testing. Beta
releases occur after alpha testing and have almost complete functionality
and relatively few bugs. Beta testing will be conducted by a range of
customers who are interested in evaluating the new software. The aim of
beta testing is to identify bugs in the software before it is shipped
to a range of customers.
Big-bang changeover. Immediate cutover
when a new system becomes operational and operations transfer immediately
from the previous system.
BIOS (Basic Input/Output System).
Housed in a memory chip on the computer’s motherboard, the BIOS contains
software that controls all of the computer’s most basic activities.
It is the BIOS that allows the keyboard, display, hard disk drives, serial
ports and other devices to function. The BIOS is stored in ROM so that
it is always available and cannot be accidentally damaged or erased.
Bit. A single binary digit representing
a (0) zero or a 1.
Bit map image. A bit map image is
made up of small dots (pixels) arranged in a grid. The finer the grid,
the higher the resolution of the image.
Bookmarks. All web browsers allow
users to maintain a directory of WWW sites. The directory will enable
users to add, edit, delete and organise addresses in the form of bookmarks.
Bottom-up design. The bottom-up approach
to design starts with the design of individual modules, establishing their
inputs and outputs and then builds an overall design from these modules.
Boundary. This describes the interface
between a system and its environment. Everything within the boundary forms
part of the system, everything outside the boundary forms part of the
external environment.
Brainstorming. Uses the interaction
between a group of staff to generate new ideas and discuss existing problems.
It is the least structured of the fact-finding techniques.
Brand abuse. This describes a wide
range of activities, ranging from the sale of counterfeit goods (e.g.
software applications) to exploiting a well-known brand name for commercial
British Computer Society (BCS). The
British Computer Society is widely regarded as the UK’s leading professional
association for those involved the management and development of computer-based
information systems.
Bubble jet printer. A bubble jet printer
works in similar manner to an inkjet printer, but transfers the character
by melting the ink droplets onto the paper.
Bug. Software bugs are defects in
a program which are caused by human error during programming or earlier
in the lifecycle. They may result in major faults or may remain unidentified.
Bulk e-mailer. The use of mass e-mail
programs, called bulk e-mailers, enables an organisation to issue documents,
such as questionnaires, at a fraction of the cost of traditional methods.
Bus width. Describes how many pieces
of data can be transmitted or received at one time by the bus connecting
the processor to other components of the PC.
Business-aligning IS strategy. The
IS strategy is used to support the business strategy.
Business-impacting IS strategy. The
IS strategy is used to favourably impact the business strategy, perhaps
by introducing new technologies.
Business information systems. This
describes information systems used to support the functional areas of
business. For example, an organisation might use specialised information
systems to support sales, marketing and human resource management activities.
Business intelligence (BI) software.
BI software is a general term used to describe analysis software which
makes use of functions available in data warehouses, data marts and data
Business model. A summary of how a
company will generate revenue identifying its product offering, value-added
services, revenue sources and target customers.
Business process automation (BPA).
Automating existing ways of working manually through information technology.
Business process re-engineering (BPR).
Identifying and implementing radical new ways of carrying out work, often
enabled by new IT capabilities.
Business resource base. The resources
that a company has available to it are known collectively as the business
resource base. The business resource base is made up of physical and conceptual
resources (also known as tangible and intangible assets).
Business rule. A rule defines the
actions that need to occur in a business when a particular situation arises.
For example a business rule may state that if a customer requests credit
and they have a history of defaulting on payments, then credit will not
be issued. A business rule is broken down into an event which triggers
a rule with test conditions which result in defined actions.
Business Software Alliance (BSA).
An organisation formed to act against software piracy. See Software theft.
Business-to-business (B2B). Commercial
transactions are between an organisation and other organisations.
Business-to-consumer (B2C). Commercial
transactions are between an organisation and consumers.
Buy-side e-commerce. E-commerce transactions
between a purchasing organisation and its supplier.
Byte. Made up of eight bits and represents
the amount of space required to hold a single character.
Cable modem. These devices allow users
to make use of the fibre-optic cables that have been installed in most
major cities by cable television companies. Cable modems offer very high
data transfer rates, up to a theoretical maximum of 30 Mbps.
Cache (browser). In order to increase
the speed and efficiency with which a web browser functions, a temporary
storage space is used to store copies of any pages that the user has viewed.
If the user returns to a given location, the web browser retrieves the
required page from the temporary storage space (known as a cache), rather
than transfer a fresh copy from a remote computer.
Cache memory. In a computer system,
cache memory is used to improve performance by anticipating the data and
instructions that will be needed by the processor. The required data are
retrieved and held in the cache, ready to be transferred directly to the
processor when required.
Call centre. An office which is devoted
to answering telephone enquiries from customers, call centres are commonly
used for financial services and retail customer support.
Capacity loading graphs. Capacity
loading graphs show the resources required to undertake activities in
a project.
CD-R (CD-recordable). This describes
a variation on the traditional CD-ROM. CDR drives can not only read conventional
compact discs but can also write data to special ‘gold’ discs.
Compact discs produced in this way are known as write-once discs, that
is, once data has been stored on the disc it can not be altered or erased.
See CD-ROM.
CD-ROM. A computer storage device
offering a relatively high capacity. The acronym CD-ROM stands for compact
disc — read only memory, denoting the fact that CD-ROM discs are
read- data cannot be written to a CD-ROM by a conventional
CDRW. A more recent development in
terms of compact disc storage are CD re-writable drives. In addition to
providing the functionality of the CDR drive, the CDRW drive also allows
the use of special compact disc media that can be written and erased many
times. However, discs produced in this way are not compatible with standard
CD-ROM drives and can only be used with a CDRW unit. See CDR and CD-ROM.
Central processing unit (CPU). This
describes the microprocessor found in a computer system. The CPU controls
all of the computer’s main functions and enables users to execute
programs or process data.
Centralised IS management. Centralised
IS management will involve the control of all IS services from a central
location, typically in a company head office or data-centre.
CGI (common gateway interface). CGI
offers a way of providing interactivity through the web. With a form-type
HTML document, a user type in information and structured information or
queries sent using the web.
Change (modification) requests. A
modification to the software thought to be necessary by the business users
or developers.
Changeover. The term used to describe
moving from the old information system to the new information system.
Channels. Channels (sometimes described
as netcasting) enable users to subscribe to particular sites on the Internet,
in much the same way that one might subscribe to a newspaper or magazine.
The use of channels allows both the user and the information provider
to select the information to be sent and schedule its transmission.
Checksum digits. A checksum involves
the use of an extra digit for ensuring the validity of long code numbers.
The checksum digit is calculated from an algorithm involving the numbers
in the code and their modulus (by convention modulus 11).
Chip theft. Chip theft describes a
relatively new phenomenon involving the removal of small but valuable
components from computers, such as memory modules and processors.
CISC. (complex instruction set computer)
is a specific type of microprocessor which has a wide range of instructions
to enable easy programming and efficient use of memory. CISC processors
are best known as the Intel processors from 8086 to 80486 and the Motorola
68000 used in early Apple Macintoshes.
Client/server. The client/server architecture
consists of client computers such as PC s sharing resources such as a
database stored on a more powerful server computers. Processing can be
shared between the clients and the servers.
Client/server model. This describes
a system architecture in which end-user computers access data from more
powerful server computers. Processing can be split in various ways between
the server and client.
Closed questions. Closed questions
have a restricted choice of answers such as Yes/No or a range of opinion
on a scale of strongly agree to strongly disagree (Lickert scale). Approach
is useful for quantitative analysis of results.
Closed system. No or limited interaction
occurs with the environment.
Code of conduct. Members of professional
associations, such as the British Computer Society, are expected to abide
by a set of principles that set out minimum standards of competence, conduct
and behaviour.
Cognitive style. This describes the
way in which a manager absorbs information and reaches decisions. A manager’s
cognitive style will fall between analytical and intuitive styles.
Comma-separated values (CSV). A CSV
file is a simple text file made up of items enclosed within quotation
marks and separated by commas. The use of commas and quotation marks enables
a program reading the file to identify individual items.
Command line interpreter (CLI). A
CLI is used to pass instructions from a user to a computer program. The
CLI accepts instructions from a user in the form of brief statements entered
via the keyboard.
Commercial languages. This category
of programming languages is intended to create applications that meet
the basic information processing requirements of business organisations.
Commoditisation. The process whereby
product selection becomes more dependent on price than differentiating
features, benefits and value-added services.
Compact disc (CD). This describes
the media used by CD-ROM players. The data on a compact disc are encoded
as a series of dips and raised areas. These two states represent binary
data — the same number system used by microprocessors. The CD-ROM
player shines a laser beam onto the surface of the disc and measures the
light that is reflected back. The intensity of the light that is reflected
back enables the player to distinguish individual binary digits. See CD-ROM.
Competitive advantage. In order to
survive or expand, organisations must seek to gain dominance over their
competitors in the marketplace. This can be achieved by using a variety
of strategies to gain control of a market or prevent others from gaining
Compiler. The instructions that make
up a computer program are often stored as a simple text file, usually
called a source code file. A compiler produces an executable program by
converting instructions held as source code into machine language.
Compound key. In a relational database,
it is possible to retrieve data from several tables at once By using record
keys in combination, often known as a compound key. See Record key and
Primary key.
Computer-aided design (CAD). Provides
interactive graphics that assist in the development of product and service
designs. Connects to a database allowing designs to be recalled and developed
Computer-aided manufacture (CAM).
CAM involves the use of computers directly to control production equipment
and indirectly to support manufacturing operations.
Computer-aided software engineering (CASE)
tools. CASE tools are software which helps the systems analyst and
designer in the analysis, design and build phases of a software project.
They provide tools for drawing diagrams such as ERDs and storing information
about processes, entities and attributes.
Computer criminals. In general, computer
criminals are well-educated, white-collar workers who feel undervalued
or bear some resentment to an employer or former employer. Computer criminals
make use of technology to perform a variety of criminal acts, ranging
from vandalism and sabotage to hacking and fraud.
Computer Misuse Act (1990). This legislation
is intended to protect sensitive equipment and data from unauthorised
access, alteration and damage.
Computer monitoring. The use of computer
and communications technology to monitor the activities of individuals.
Computer network. A computer network
can be defined as: ‘a communications system that links two or more
computers and peripheral devices and enables transfer of data between
the components’.
Computer output to microfilm (COM).
COM, also known as computer output microfilm, is often used to archive
large quantities of information for future reference. Information is processed
via a personal computer and sent directly to a device that produces microfilm
negatives.
Computer system. A computer system
consists of a number of interrelated components that work together with
the aim of converting data into information. In a computer system, processing
is carried out electronically, usually with little or no intervention
from a human user. The components of a computer system include hardware
and software.
Computer virus. A computer virus is
a computer program that is capable of self-replication, allowing it to
spread from one ‘infected’ machine to another.
Computer-based information system.
This describes an information system that makes use of information technology
in order to create management information.
Conceptual resources. Conceptual resources
describe the non-physical resources owned by a company. Conceptual resources
are also known as intangible assets. Examples include knowledge, experience
and judgement.
Configuration management. Procedures
which define the process of building a version of the software from its
constituent program files and data files.
Constructive cost model (COCOMO).
A model used to estimate the amount of effort required to complete a project
on the basis of the estimated number of lines of program code.
Contact manager. This describes a
software application that can be used to maintain lists of information
relating to customers, suppliers and other important individuals or organisations.
Content. Content is the design, text
and graphical information which forms a web page.
Content dimension. This describes
several characteristics of information quality related to the scope and
contents of the information. Amongst these characteristics are the accuracy,
relevance and conciseness of information. As an example, information may
be considered to be of high quality if it is accurate. Other dimensions
of information characteristics include time and form. See Time dimension,
Form dimension.
Context diagrams. A simplified diagram
which is useful for specifying the boundaries and scope of the system.
They can be readily produced after the information flow diagram since
they are a simplified version of the IFD showing the external entities.
Control. If alterations are needed
to the system, adjustments are made by some form of control mechanism.
The function of a control mechanism is to ensure that the system is working
to fulfil its objective.
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act (1988).
Legislation that can be used to provide organisations and software developers
with protection against unauthorised copying of designs, software, printed
materials and other works.
Copy protection. This describes a
number of methods that can be used to prevent unauthorised copies being
made of a software package.
Core competencies. Resources, including
skills or technologies that provide a particular benefit to customers.
Cost of ownership. The cost of ownership
describes a range of different expenses incurred by purchasing and maintaining
a computer system. Such costs include the original cost of the hardware
and software, upgrades, maintenance, technical support and training.
Cost per megabyte. The cost per megabyte
presents a simple means of gauging the costs associated with a given storage
Cost per page. The cost per page provides
a simple means of determining the overall running costs of a given printer.
The figures given usually refer to the costs of consumables such as ink
and replacement components (toner cartridges, drums and so on).
Countermediation. Creation of a new
intermediary by an established company.
Coupling. Defines how closely linked
different subsystems are. Loose coupling means that the modules pass only
the minimum of information between them and do not share data and program
code. Close-coupled systems are highly dependent on each other.
CPM. Cost for advertising is specified
as CPM or cost per thousand page impressions.
Cracker. A person who gains access
to an information system for malicious reasons is often termed a cracker
rather than a hacker. This is because some people draw a distinction between
‘ethical’ hackers and malicious hackers.
Critical path. Activities on the critical
path are termed critical activities. Any delay in these activities will
cause a delay in the project completion time.
Critical path method (CPM). Critical
path diagrams show the relationship between activities in a project.
Critical success factors (CSFs). CSFs
are measures which indicate the performance or efficiency of different
parts of an organisation.
Cross-licensing agreement. Cross-licensing
agreements allow companies to share patents so that each can produce and
market a wider range of products. See Patent.
Customer relationship management (CRM).
CRM involves a company forming a long-term business relationship with
its customers for mutual benefit. The essential aim of CRM is to improve
customer service without harming company profitability. Typically, information
technology is used to obtain and analyse information on customer behaviour.
Such an analysis might result in various actions, such as improving the
products and services offered to customers.
Customer value. Dependent on product
quality, service quality, price and fulfilment time.
Cybermall. A single web site which
gives online access to goods from a range of shops in a similar way to
how physical shopping malls enable shoppers to make purchases in one location.
Cybersquatting. The act of registering
an Internet domain with the intention of selling it for profit to an interested
party. As an example, the name of a celebrity might be registered and
then offered for sale at an extremely high price.
Cyberspace. The prefix cyber indicate
a blurring in distinction between humans, machines and communications.
Cyberspace is a synonym for Internet.
Cyberstalking. This refers to the
use of the Internet as a means of harassing another individual. A related
activity is known as corporate stalking, where an organisation uses its
resources to harass individuals or business competitors.
Cyberterrorism. This describes attacks
made on information systems that are motivated by political or religious
Daisywheel printer. The daisywheel
printer functions in much the same way as a conventional typewriter. Characters
are mounted on hammers arranged in the shape of a wheel. The wheel is
rotated until the correct character is in the correct position for printing.
As one of the earliest forms of printing technology, daisywheel printers
are considered slow and noisy. However, they are also considered inexpensive
and reliable. It should be noted that daisywheel printers are unable to
print graphics.
Data. Data can be described as a series
of facts that have been obtained by observation or research and recorded.
Data dictionary. A repository which
is used to store the details of the entities of the database. It will
define tables, relations and field details which are sometimes referred
to as metadata or ‘data about data’.
Data entry form. In an electronic
database, a data entry form provides a convenient means of viewing, entering,
editing and deleting records.
Data marts. These are small-scale
data warehouses which do not hold information across an entire company,
but rather focus on one department.
Data migration. Data migration is
the transfer of data from the old system to the new system. When data
are added to a database, this is known as populating the database.
Data mining. This involves searching
organisational databases in order to uncover hidden patterns or relationships
in groups of data. Data mining software attempts to represent information
in new ways so that previously unseen patterns or trends can be identified.
Data modelling. Data modelling involves
considering how to represent data objects within a system, both logically
and physically. The entity relationship diagram is used to model the data.
Data process. A process used to convert
data into information. Examples include summarising, classifying and sorting.
Data processing. This describes the
process of handling the large volumes of data that arise from an organisation’s
daily activities. Although data processing describes a wide range of activities,
the most common are transaction processing and process control.
Data processing (DP) department. The
data processing (DP) department was a term commonly used in the 1970s
and 1980s to describe the functional area responsible for management of
what is now referred to as information systems and applications development.
It is interesting to note that the term focuses on the processing of data
rather than the application of information. The head of this department
was referred to as DP manager rather than Chief Information Officer or
IS manager.
Data Protection Act (1984). This legislation
sets out to define the rights of organisations and individuals in terms
of how personal information is gathered, stored, processed and disclosed.
One of the most important aspects of the Act is a focus on the individual’s
rights to view the information stored on them and ensure that it is accurate.
Data validation. Data validation is
a process to ensure the quality of data by checking they have been entered
correctly.
Data warehouses. Data warehouses are
large database systems (often measured in gigabytes or terabytes) containing
detailed company data on sales transactions which are analysed to assist
in improving the marketing and financial performance of companies.
Data theft. Data theft can involve
stealing sensitive information or making unauthorised changes to computer
records. See also Software theft and Theft.
Data transfer rate. In terms of storage
devices, the data transfer rate describes how quickly a device is able
to read continuous blocks of data. This figure is normally expressed in
terms of kilobytes or megabytes.
Data views. Different screens of an
application which review information in a different form such as table,
graph, report or map
Database. A database can be defined
as a collection of related information. The information held in the database
is stored in an organised way so that specific items can be selected and
retrieved quickly. See Database management system.
Database management system (DBMS).
The information held in an electronic database is accessed via a database
management system. A DBMS can be defined as one or more computer programs
that allow users to enter, store, organise, manipulate and retrieve data
from a database. For many users, the terms database and database management
system are interchangeable. A relational database management system (RDBMS)
is an extension of a DBMS and allows data to be combined from a variety
of sources.
Dataflow diagrams (DFD). Define the
different processes in a system and the information which forms the input
and output datastores to the processes. They may be drawn at different
levels. Level 0 provides an overview of the system with levels 1 and 2
providing progressively more detail.
Decentralised IS management. Decentralised
IS management involves management of some services in individual operating
companies or at regional offices.
Decision behaviour. Describes the
way in which people make decisions.
Decision support systems. Decision
support systems provide managers with information needed to support semi-structured
or unstructured decisions.
Decision table. A matrix showing all
the alternative outcomes of different decisions which occur when certain
input conditions occur.
Decision tree. A diagram showing the
sequence of events, decisions and consequent actions that occur in a decision
making process.
Deletion anomaly. It is not possible
to delete a record from a relation without also losing some other information
which might still be required.
Denial of service (DoS). This is a
form of attack on company information systems that involves flooding the
company’s Internet servers with huge amounts of traffic. Such attacks
effectively halt all of the company’s Internet activities until the
problem is dealt with.
Deployment plan. A deployment plan
is a schedule which defines all the tasks that need to occur in order
for changeover to occur successfully. This includes putting in place all
the infrastructure such as cabling and hardware.
Desktop computer. The desktop computer
is intended for office use and supports the day-to-day activities of an
organisation’s employees. These machines tend to be placed in a fixed
location and connected permanently to items such as printers, scanners
and other devices. The desktop computer is the most common type of microcomputer
and is found in the majority of organisations.
Detailed design. Detailed design involves
the specification of how an individual component of a system will function
in terms of its data input and output, user interface and security.
Development programs. Development
programs allow users to develop their own software in order to carry out
processing tasks.
Dial-up networking (DUN). Dial-up
networking software allows users to access a network at a remote location
via a modem. Most home computer users, for example, access the Internet
via dial-up networking.
Dialog. An onscreen window (box) which
is used by a user to input data or select options.
Digital. Digital data can only represent
a finite number of discrete values. For example, at the most basic level,
a computer recognises only the values 0 (zero) and 1. Any values between
0 and 1, for example 0.15, cannot be represented.
Digital audio tape (DAT). A storage
medium that combines some of the characteristics of magnetic tape and
compact disc. Digital audio tape couples high storage capacities with
improved speed and reliability.
Digital camera. A digital camera captures
and stores still images in much the same way as a traditional camera.
Images are held in the camera’s memory or stored on disk until they
can be transferred to a personal computer. The image is recorded using
a charge-coupled device which recognises the different colours and intensity
of light in the image.
Digital certificates. A method of
ensuring privacy on the Internet. Certificates consist of a private key
for encrypting data or documents and a corresponding public key for reading
the data. An independent certification authority issues public and private
keys. Basis for SET.
Digital ID. A digital ID provides
a means of confirming the identity of a specific user through the use
of a small data file called a personal certificate. The certificate contains
encrypted information relating to the user’s identity.
Digital versatile disc (DVD). Although
superficially similar to CD-ROM, DVD devices offer two important benefits
to users. First, the discs used by a DVD player offer extremely high storage
capacities, typically between 4 Gb and 7 Gb. Secondly, data held on DVD
can be accessed at very high speeds. One of the most common applications
for DVD as a distribution medium for full-length feature films. See CD-ROM.
Disaster recovery company. These maintain
copies of important data on behalf of an organisation. They may also provide
a service which can immediately supply replacement systems.
Disintermediation. The removal of
intermediaries such as distributors or brokers that formerly linked a
company to its customers.
Direct capture. This describes a method
of acquiring and storing data automatically with little or no human intervention.
As an example, the sensors on an automated production line can be described
as direct capture devices.
Direct file access. Random or direct
file access allows any record to be read or written.
Document image processing (DIP). DIP
systems are used in industry to convert printed documents into an electronic
format so that they can be stored, organised and retrieved more easily.
Documentation. Software documentation
refers to end-user guidance such as the user guide and technical maintenance
documentation such as design and test specifications.
Documentation review. Uses information
on existing systems such as user guides, or requirements specifications
together with paper or on-screen forms used to collect information such
as sales order forms.
Domain name. Refers to the name of
the web server and is usually selected to be the same as the name of the
company and the extension will indicate its type. The extension is also
commonly known as the Global Top Level Domain (gTLD).
http://www.domain-name.extension/filename.htm
Dongle. This describes a hardware
device used to prevent unauthorised copies of a program being made. The
hardware ‘key’ must be connected to the computer in order for
the software to function.
Dot-matrix printer. The dot-matrix
printer arranges a series of pins to form the shape of a required character.
The character is transferred to the paper by striking the pins against
an ink ribbon. The greater the number of pins used, the more detailed
the character can be produced. As one of the earliest forms of printing
technology, dot-matrix printers are considered slow and noisy. However,
they are also considered inexpensive and reliable.
Dot-pitch. This describes a common
method of gauging the quality of a monitor’s display and involves
measuring the distance — known as the dot-pitch — between the
pixels on the screen. The smaller the distance between pixels, the finer
the image will appear.
Dots per inch (DPI). The quality of
a printer’s output is normally measured in dots per inch. This describes
the number of individual dots that can be printed within a space of one
square inch. Quality is normally compared against professional typesetting,
such as the equipment used to produce a book or magazine.
Dynamic systems development methodology
(DSDM). A methodology which describes how RAD can be approached.
Dynamic web page. A page that is created
in real time, often with reference to a database query, in response to
a user request.
Early adopter. Early adopters are
companies or departments that invest in new technologies when they first
become available in an attempt to gain a competitive advantage despite
the risk in deploying new systems.
Economic feasibility. An assessment
of the costs and benefits of different solutions to select that which
gives the best value. (Will the new system cost more than the expected
benefits?)
Editing. The process of entering or
correcting text is known as editing.
Effort time. Effort time is the total
amount of work that needs to occur to complete a task.
EISA (Extended Industry Standard Architecture).
This describes a common standard governing the way in which an expansion
card interacts with a computer’s motherboard and CPU. See Expansion
card and Motherboard.
Elapsed time. Elapsed time indicates
how long in time (such as calendar days) the task will take (duration).
Electronic business. All electronically
mediated information exchanges, both within an organisation and with external
stakeholders, supporting the range of business processes.
Electronic commerce. Transactions
of goods or services for which payment occurs over the Internet or other
wide-area networks.
Electronic data interchange (EDI).
The electronic exchange of information between businesses using wide-area
network. EDI transactions transfer structured data such as an electronic
payment and also documents.
Electronic document management software
(EDMS). Systems that convert documents into a digital format which
allows storage, retrieval and manipulation of the document on computer.
Electronic eavesdropping. This describes
the act of gaining access to confidential information by intercepting
or monitoring communications traffic. See also Computer monitoring.
Electronic funds transfer. Automated
digital transmission of money between organisations and banks.
Electronic mail (e-mail). E-mail can
be defined as the transmission of a message over a communications network.
Electronic meeting systems. This describes
a category of office automation systems that seek to improve communications
between individuals and groups. Examples of these systems include those
that support teleconferencing, teleworking and groupwork. See Office automation
Electronic publishing systems. This
describes a category of office automation systems that supports the production
of documents, such as letters, reports and catalogues. Some of the typical
programs used include word processors and desktop publishing packages.
See Office automation systems.
End-user computing (EUC). End-user
computing includes all uses of computers by business people who are not
information systems professionals. This may range from use of business
applications through spreadsheet modelling to developing programs to solve
specific problems.
End-user development (EUD). End-user
development is programming undertaken by non-IS staff. It typically involves
development of small applications for solving departmental problems rather
than cross-departmental applications.
End-user IT services. These include
all services required to support end-users in running their PCs and applications.
Enterprise resource planning (ERP) software.
A software system with integrated functions for all major business functions
across an organisation such as production, distribution, sales, finance
and human resources management. It is normally purchased as an off-the-shelf
package which is tailored by a consultant. A single package typically
replaces many different previous packages.
Environment. This describes the surroundings
of a system. The environment of a system can contain other systems and
external agencies.
EPROM (eraseable programmable read-only
memory). This is a form of ROM that retains its contents until changed
using a special device known as a ‘burner’. See Read-only memory.
Error rate. In many cases, it may
be acceptable if an input device generates a certain number of errors.
This is often referred to as the error rate and the acceptable level will
vary according to the input device being used and the business application.
Optical character recognition, for example, is generally considered a
comparatively unreliable means of entering data. At present, a typical
OCR software package will have an error rate of between five and ten per
Errors per KLOC. Errors per KLOC (thousands
of line of code) is the basic defect measure used in systems development.
Estimation. Estimation allows the
project manager to plan for the resources required for project execution
through establishing the number and size of tasks that need to be completed
in the project.
Ethics. In general terms, ethics describes
beliefs concerning right and wrong that can be used by individuals to
guide their behaviour. See Morality and Professionalism.
Executive information systems. These
systems are used by senior management to select, retrieve and manage information
that can be used to support the achievement of an organisation’s
business objectives. They need not be directly concerned with decision-making
activities, but can help senior managers to become more efficient and
productive in a number of other ways, for example by helping them to manage
their time more efficiently.
Expansion card. Expansion cards can
be used to extend a computer’s capabilities by adding new devices
to the system. An expansion card usually takes the form of a small circuit
board that can be inserted into an expansion slot on the computer’s
motherboard. Some examples of expansion cards include modems, graphics
cards and sound cards.
Expert systems. Expert systems are
used to represent the knowledge decision-making skills of specialists
so that non-specialists can take decisions. They encapsulate the knowledge
of experts by providing tools for the acquisition of knowledge and representation
of rules and their enactment as decisions.
Explicit knowledge. Knowledge that
can be readily expressed and recorded within information systems.
Export. The process of saving a file
in a format compatible with another software package is known as exporting.
Extensible markup language. See XML.
Extranet. An intranet with restricted
access which is extended to suppliers, collaborators or customers.
Fax-modem. A fax-modem combines the
capabilities of a modem with the ability to send and receive fax transmissions.
Fax-on-demand. A service that allows
users to select from a range of documents by using the keys on the telephone
handset. Once a document has been selected, the system automatically telephones
the user’s fax machine and transmits the document.
Feasibility study. The feasibility
study is the activity that occurs at the start of the project to ensure
that the project is a viable business proposition. The feasibility report
analyses the need for and impact of the system and considers different
alternatives for acquiring software. Input: Idea for initiation of a new
information system. Output: Feasibility report and recommendation to proceed.
Federation against Software Theft (FAST).
An organisation formed to act against software piracy. See Software theft.
Feedback. A feedback mechanism provides
information on the performance of a system. An example of feedback might
include quality control measurements taken on a production line.
Feedback control. In feedback closed-loop
control systems the control loop compares the output of the process to
the desired output and if a difference is found, adjusts the input or
process accordingly.
Feedforward control. Feedforward incorporates
a prediction element in the control feedback loop.
Field. The data in an electronic database
is organised by fields and records. A field is a single item of information,
such as a name or a quantity.
File attachment. E-mail messages can
be used to transmit data files to other users. Files can be attached to
messages and transmitted in the usual way. All types of data can be sent
in this way including word processor files, spreadsheet data, graphics
and database files.
Filter. In a spreadsheet or database,
a filter can be used to remove data from the screen temporarily. This
allows users to work with a specific group of records. Filters do not
alter or delete data but simply hide any unwanted items.
Financial EDI. Aspect of electronic
payment mechanism involving transfer of funds from the bank of a buyer
to a seller.
Firewalls. This is a specialised software
application mounted on a server at the point the company is connected
to the Internet. Its purpose is to prevent unauthorised access into the
company from outsiders. Firewalls are essential for all companies hosting
their own web server.
First normal form (1NF). Transforming
unnormalised data into its first normal form state involves the removal
of repeating groups of data.
Flat file database. A flat file database
can be described as being self-contained since it contains only one type
of record — or table — and cannot access data held in other
database files.
Flexible manufacturing systems (FMS).
A group of machines with programmable controllers linked by an automated
materials handling system and integrated by an IS that enables a variety
of parts with similar processing requirements to be manufactured.
Floppy disk. Consists of a plastic
disk, coated with a magnetic covering and enclosed within a rigid plastic
Font. The typeface used in a document
is referred to as the font. The size of the characters used is referred
to as the point size.
Foreign (secondary) key fields. These
fields are used to link tables together by referring to the primary key
in another database table.
Form. An on-screen equivalent of a
paper form which is used for entering data and will have validation routines
to help improve the accuracy of the entered data.
Formal communication. Formal communication
involves presenting information in a structured and consistent manner.
Such information is normally created for a specific purpose, making it
likely to be more comprehensive, accurate and relevant than information
transmitted using information communication. An example of formal communication
is an accounting statement. See Informal communication.
Form dimension. This describes several
characteristics of information quality related to how the information
is presented to the recipient. Amongst these characteristics are clarity,
level of detail and the order of information. As an example, information
may be considered to be of high quality if it is presented in a clear
and consistent fashion (clarity). Other dimensions of information characteristics
include time and content. See Time dimension, Content dimension.
Formula. In a spreadsheet, a formula
is a calculation that is entered by the user and performed automatically
by the spreadsheet program.
Free-form database. A free-form database
allows users to store information in the form of brief notes or passages
of text. Each item held can be placed within a category or assigned one
or more key words. Information is organised and retrieved by using categories
or key words.
FTP file transfer. The file transfer
protocol is used as a standard for moving files across the Internet. The
most common use is for releasing fixes to software applications. Documents
can be transferred by this means. FTP is available as a feature of web
browsers for downloading files.
Function. In a spreadsheet, a function
is a built-in command that carries out a calculation or action automatically.
Functional testing. Testing of particular
functions or modules either following a test script or working through
the module systematically.
Functionality. A term used to describe
whether software has the features necessary to support the business requirements.
Function point analysis. A method
of estimating the time it will take to build a system by counting up the
number of functions and data inputs and outputs and then comparing to
completed projects.
Full backup. A method of producing
backup copies of important data files. A full backup includes all data
files considered to be important. See also Incremental backup.
Gantt charts. Show the duration of
parallel and sequential activities in a project as horizontal bars on
GIF (graphics interchange format).
A graphics format and compression algorithm best used for simple graphics.
Gigabyte (Gb). A measure of storage
capacity. Approximately 1000 Mb, of the equivalent of one billion characters.
Geographical Information System (GIS).
Uses maps to display information about different geographic locations
such as catchments or branches. They are commonly used for performance
analysis by marketing staff.
Global business. The global business
is a company that operates in several countries and uses information technology
to assist in the control of operation and performance in each country.
Goal seeking. In a spreadsheet, goal
seeking describes a way of automatically changing the values in a formula
until a desired result is achieved.
Grandfather, father, son. A common
procedure used for creating backup copies of important data files.
Graphics accelerator card. A type
of graphics card containing its own memory and featuring a coprocessor.
The coprocessor reduces the burden placed on the CPU by taking over the
intensive calculations needed to produce complex graphical displays.
Graphics tablet. A graphics tablet
is used in the same way as a writing pad. A stylus is used to draw images
on a rigid pad located near to the computer. As the user draws with the
stylus, the image is duplicated on the computer’s display.
Graphical user interface (GUI). A
graphical user interface allows the user to control the operation of a
computer program or item of computer hardware using a pointing device,
such as a mouse. In general, commands are issued by selecting items from
menus, buttons and icons.
Groupware. Software which enables
information and decision making to be shared by people collaborating within
and between businesses.
Hacker. Hackers are often described
as individuals who seek to break into systems as a test of their abilities.
Few hackers attempt to cause damage to systems they access and few are
interested in gaining any sort of financial profit.
Hardware. Describes the physical components
of a computer system. The hardware of a computer system can be said to
consist of: input devices, memory, central processing unit, output devices
and storage devices.
Hard data. See Quantitative data.
Hard disk. A magnetic media that stores
data upon a number of rigid platters that are rotated at very high speeds.
Hierarchical systems. Systems that
are hierarchical in nature, being made up of subsystems that may themselves
be made up of other subsystems.
Hierarchy of strategies. Sub-strategies
developed to help achieve corporate objectives.
Hits. A measure of individual files
delivered to the browser when requesting a URL. Hits usually overstate
access to a web page. Page-impressions and ad-impressions are more accurate.
Hot plugging. This describes the ability
to add or remove new devices whilst the computer is running and have the
operating system automatically recognise any changes made.
HTML (hypertext markup language).
HTML is the method used to create web pages and documents. The HTML code
used to construct pages has codes or tags such as &TITLE& to indicate
to the browser what is displayed.
Human activity system. A human activity
system can be defined as a ‘notional system (i.e. not existing in
any tangible form) where human beings are undertaking some activities
that achieve some purpose’.
Human—computer interaction (HCI)
design. HCI involves the study of methods for designing the input
and output of information systems to ensure they are ‘user-friendly’.
Hypertext. Hypertext is highlighted
words or phrases that represent links to other documents activated by
clicking the mouse.
Hypertext database. In a hypertext
database information is stored as series of objects and can consist of
text, graphics, numerical data and multimedia data. Any object can be
linked to any other, allowing users to store disparate information in
an organised manner.
IBM-compatible. The modern personal
computer found in most business organisations developed from a family
of personal computers launched by IBM in the early 1980s. The IBM-compatible
computer is considered the standard for general business use.
If Then Else statement. These are
common within programs since they govern the different actions taken by
the program according to a condition. They are usually in the form:
IF Condition Then.
if condition is TRUE
if condition is FALSE
Image processing systems. This describes
a category of office automation systems that allows users to create, edit,
store and retrieve documents in electronic format. Document image processing
(DIP) is an example of an image processing systems. See Office automation
Immediate cutover (big-bang) changeover.
Immediate cutover is when a new system becomes operational and operations
transfer immediately from the previous system.
Import. The process of loading a file
created with another package is known as importing
Incremental backup. A method of producing
backup copies of important data files. An incremental backup includes
only those files that have changed in some way since the last backup was
made. See Full backup.
Index. In an electronic database,
an index stores information concerning the order of the records in the
database. The index lists the locations of records but does not alter
the actual order of the database.
Informal communication. This describes
information that is transmitted by informal means, such as casual conversations
between members of staff. The information transmitted in this way is often
less structured and less detailed than information transmitted by formal
communication. In addition, the information may be inconsistent or may
contain inaccuracies. Furthermore, the information may also include a
subjective element, such as personal opinions. See Formal communication.
Information. Data that have been processed
so that they are meaningful.
Information centre (IC). An IC is
a central facility in an organisation which provides end-user services
such as phone support for troubleshooting end-user software and hardware
problems, training, guidance on end-user development and management of
user information.
Information flow diagram (IFD). A
simple diagram showing how information is routed between different parts
of an organisation. It has an information focus rather than a process
Information kiosk. A multimedia system
usually integrated with a touch screen to provide information for retail
or community applications such as libraries or local government is known
as information kiosk.
Information leadership. Information
leadership involves enhancing a product or service with an organisation’s
specialised information or expertise. In many cases, organisations achieve
information leadership by selling information or expertise in the form
of a separate product. A good example might be selling a mailing list
created from an organisation’s customer database.
Information need. The object of producing
information is to meet a specific purpose or requirement.
Information reporting systems. These
systems are used to generate reports containing information that can be
used to support managerial decision making.
Information society. The information
society is a term that has been coined to describe a modern population
that is conversant with — and reliant upon — information and
communications technology.
Information system. This describes
a system designed to produce information that can be used to support the
activities of managers and other workers.
Information systems acquisition. Acquisition
describes the method of obtaining an information system for a business.
The main choices are off-the-shelf (packaged), bespoke applications developed
by an in-house IT department or a software house, and end-user developed
Information systems strategy. Determination
of the most appropriate processes and resources to ensure that information
provision supports business strategy.
Information technology strategy. Determination
of the most appropriate technological infrastructure comprising hardware,
networks and software applications.
Information warrior.