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Introduction
Certain rules regarding the excise duty rates and structures applied to alcohol and alcoholic beverages were established in order to ensure a common approach among the Member States in the run up to the completion of the Internal Market on 1 January 1993.
The rates and structures of the excise duty system applicable to alcohol and alcoholic beverages is set down in Community legislation.
Beer, wine, cider and spirits
, which deals with the structures of excise duties on alcohol and alcoholic beverages, defines the categories of alcohol and alcoholic beverages, which are subject to excise duty, and the basis on which the excise duty is calculated. The categories are
fermented beverages other than beer and wine (for example, cider and perry), intermediate products (for example, port and sherry) and
ethyl alcohol (i.e. spirit drinks).
It also includes special provisions relating, for example, to reduced rates for small breweries and distilleries, certain products and geographical regions.
Included within the term "ethyl alcohol" is alcohol which is not necessarily intended as a beverage, for example, alcohol intended for industrial purposes, in the production of foodstuffs, medicines and so on. The general principle is that excise duty is only due on alcohol intended for human consumption as a beverage and, therefore, the Directive provides exemptions from excise duty, subject to rules, for these particular purposes.
Minimum rates
Although full harmonisation of the excise duty rates throughout the European Union was not considered necessary by the Council of Ministers for the proper functioning of the Internal Market, a series of minimum rates were agreed. Above these minimum rates Member States retain sovereignty to set excise duty rates at levels they consider appropriate according to their own national circumstances.
on the approximation of the rates of excise duty on alcohol and alcoholic beverages sets down these minimum rates.
This Directive requires that the Commission review these minimum rates periodically. The Commission's current report () was presented to Council on 26 May 2004 (see press release
Following the afore-mentioned report and subsequent discussions in the Council, the Commission on 8 September 2006 presented a proposal for a Directive (
and press release
) amending Directive 92/84/EEC by increasing the minimum rates of excise duty in line with inflation. In particular, it revalorises the minimum rates in line with inflation from 1993 to 2005, (which is in the order of 31%) to take effect from 1 January 2008 and provides for transitional periods up to 1 January 2010 for those Member States that may have difficulties in increasing their national rates.
The control, holding and movement of duty-suspended alcohol and alcoholic beverages are subject to
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Alcoholic Beverages
have consistently found that moderate alcohol consumption
(no more than two alcoholic drinks/day for men and one alcoholic drink/day
for women) is associated with significant reductions in the risk of
(CHD) and ischemic .
Limited evidence from epidemiological studies suggests that moderate
alcohol intake may also be associated with reduced risk of type 2 ,
Even moderate alcohol consumption may increase the risk of breast
cancer, alcohol-related birth defects, and progression to heavy alcohol
consumption in some people. &
Heavy alcohol consumption is associated with increased risks of ,
hemorrhagic , heart rhythm
disturbances,
accidents, injury, violence, and damage to the heart, liver, and pancreas. &
Heavy alcohol consumption is associated with increased risk of certain
cancers, including oral, esophageal, liver, breast, and colorectal cancers.
The combined use of alcohol and tobacco greatly increases the risk of
oral and esophageal cancers. &
Those who consume alcohol should make sure they also consume adequate
folate by taking a daily multivitamin that provides 400 mcg of folic
There is consensus that the risks of moderate alcohol consumption
outweigh the benefits for some people. People who should abstain from
alcohol include :
Children and adolescents
Pregnant women and women who may become pregnant
Anyone who has trouble limiting his or her alcohol consumption
to moderate levels, particularly recovering alcoholics and those with
a family history of alcoholism or alcohol problems
Anyone with chronic liver disease or alcohol-related disease or
organ damage
Anyone planning to drive, operate heavy machinery, or perform other
potentially hazardous activities requiring coordination and skill
People who would benefit from individualized advice regarding potential
risks and benefits of moderate alcohol consumption include:
Anyone taking medications (over-the-counter or prescription) with
the potential for adverse interactions with alcohol
Anyone with a personal history or strong family history (e.g., parent or sibling) of breast cancer
Introduction
While excessive alcohol consumption has been linked to a
number of serious health and social problems, moderate alcohol consumption
has been associated with some important health benefits. The relationship
between alcohol consumption and mortality is often described as J-shaped,
meaning that when graphed from alcohol abstinence on the left to heavy drinking on the right, light to moderate consumption is associated with lower rates
of mortality—mostly from —than abstention, while heavy alcohol consumption is
associated with higher rates of mortality from a number of causes .
Because the consumption of alcohol can be viewed as a ?double-edged sword,?
individual decisions regarding alcohol use should take into consideration
scientific evidence regarding potential health benefits and risks as well
as personal and family histories of health problems and addictions.
Definitions
Standard alcoholic drink
A standard alcoholic drink contains approximately 14 grams of alcohol,
which is equivalent to 12 fluid ounces of beer, 5 fluid ounces of wine,
3.5 fluid ounces of fortified wine (e.g., sherry or port), or 1.5 fluid
ounces of liquor (distilled spirits).
Moderate Alcohol Consumption (as defined by the U.S. Department of Agriculture )
Men: No more than two standard alcoholic drinks/day
Women: No more than one standard alcoholic drink/day*
Adults over 65: No more than one standard alcoholic
drink/day#
Heavy Alcohol Consumption
Men: 15 or more standard alcoholic drinks/week
or 5 or more alcoholic drinks on any given occasion
Women: 8 or more standard alcoholic drinks/week
or 4 or more alcoholic drinks on any given occasion*
Adults over 65: 8 or more standard alcoholic drinks/week
or 4 or more alcoholic drinks on any given occasion#
*In addition to weighing less, on average, women absorb and metabolize alcohol differently than men. In general,
women have less body water than men of similar body weight, so women achieve
higher blood alcohol concentrations after drinking equivalent amounts
of alcohol . Women also appear
to be more vulnerable to adverse health effects of heavy drinking than
men. Thus, some definitions of "moderate" or ?heavy? drinking offer a lower threshold
for women.
#Age-associated decreases in lean body mass may result in decreased total
body water and higher blood alcohol concentrations in older adults compared to younger
adults after drinking equivalent amounts of alcohol .
Potential Health Benefits
of Moderate Alcohol Consumption
Cardiovascular Disease
Coronary Heart Disease
Over the past three decades, the most consistent evidence of a health
benefit associated with moderate alcohol consumption has been a significant
reduction in the risk of
(CHD)?a finding confirmed by more than 60
. When the results
were combined in a ,
adults who consumed an average of 25 grams/day of alcohol (the amount
in two standard alcoholic drinks) had a risk of CHD that was 20% lower
than adults who did not consume alcohol .
Recent data from two large prospective cohort studies conducted in the
U.S. suggest that the magnitude of CHD risk reduction associated with
moderate alcohol consumption may be closer to 30%. In a 12-year study
of more than 38,000 male health professionals, those who consumed alcohol
at least 3-4 times weekly had a risk of
(heart attack) that was 32% lower than men who drank alcohol
less than once weekly . Similarly,
in a 20-year study of more than 120,000 men and women, those who reported
consuming 1-2 alcoholic drinks daily had a risk of death from CHD that
was 30% lower than those who did not drink alcohol . Coronary heart disease is a major cause of heart failure. A prospective study in a cohort of 21,601 men and another in a cohort of 126,236 men and women found that moderate alcohol intake was inversely associated with heart failure, especially heart disease related to CHD .
How does alcohol consumption reduce CHD risk? The development
of CHD is characterized by the formation of
laden plaque in the arteries (), vascular ,
and clot formation . Numerous small
randomized trials have examined the effect of daily alcohol consumption
on markers of CHD risk. One of the actions of
(HDL) is to transport cholesterol from tissues, including arterial
walls, back to the liver for elimination or recycling. Not surprisingly,
higher levels of HDL-cholesterol are associated with reductions in CHD
risk . Randomized trials have
consistently demonstrated that moderate daily alcohol intake significantly
increases HDL-cholesterol levels .
Clot formation is the result of complex interactions between factors that
factors that inhibit coagulation or promote the dissolution of clots.
Several randomized trials have found that moderate alcohol consumption
decreases serum levels of a protein that promotes clot formation (fibrinogen)
and increases levels of an enzyme that helps dissolve clots (tissue type
plasminogen activator) . Moderate
alcohol consumption may also have an anti-inflammatory effect since serum
levels of C-reactive protein (CRP), a marker of systemic inflammation
and sensitive predictor of CHD risk, are lower in people who drink moderately
than those who abstain from alcohol . Further, moderate alcohol consumption has been associated with improved insulin sensitivity, lower serum triglycerides, and reductions in abdominal obesity .
Does the consumption of red wine reduce CHD risk more than other
alcoholic beverages? Significant reductions in CHD risk have
been associated with moderate consumption of wine, beer, and liquor. However,
the ?French Paradox??the observation that mortality from CHD is relatively
low in France despite relatively high levels of dietary saturated fat
and cigarette smoking?led to the idea that regular consumption of
red wine might provide additional protection from CHD . Wine is rich in phenolic compounds like
that have been found to have ,
anti-inflammatory, and other potentially anti-atherogenic properties in
the test tube and in some animal models of atherosclerosis .
However, it is not yet known whether increased consumption of the nonalcoholic
compounds in red wine provides any additional protection from CHD beyond
that associated with its alcohol content. The results of epidemiological
studies addressing this question have been inconsistent. While some large
prospective studies found that wine drinkers were at lower risk of CHD
than beer or liquor drinkers , , others found no difference ,
. Socioeconomic and lifestyle
differences between people who prefer wine and those who prefer beer or
liquor may explain part of the additional benefit observed in some studies.
Several studies have found that people who prefer wine tend to have higher
incomes, have more formal education, smoke less, and eat more fruits and vegetables
and less saturated fat than people who prefer other alcoholic beverages
. Although moderate alcohol
consumption has been consistently associated with 20-30% reductions in
CHD risk, it is not yet clear whether nonalcoholic compounds abundant
in red wine confer any additional CHD risk reduction. See articles on
for more information on polyphenolic compounds in red wine.
Ischemic Stroke
are the result
of insufficient blood flow to an area of the brain, which may occur when
an artery supplying the brain becomes blocked by a blood clot. Hemorrhagic
strokes occur when a blood vessel ruptures and bleeds into the brain.
Eighty-three percent of strokes are classified as ischemic strokes .
Moderate alcohol consumption has been associated with a reduced risk of
ischemic stroke but not hemorrhagic stroke in a number of observational
studies . When the results
of 19 prospective cohort studies and 16 case-control studies of alcohol
consumption and the risk of stroke were combined in a ,
moderate alcohol consumption was associated with a significant reduction
in the risk of ischemic stroke .
Overall, those who consumed one or two drinks daily had a 28% lower risk of ischemic
stroke than those who did not consume alcohol. Thus, moderate alcohol consumption decreases risk of ischemic stroke, but not hemorrhagic stroke, because
alcohol consumption appears to inhibit clot formation.
Peripheral Arterial Disease
of the arteries supplying the heart muscle leads to coronary heart disease,
atherosclerosis of the arteries of the extremities leads to peripheral
arterial disease. When atherosclerosis is severe enough to diminish blood
flow to the legs, even walking may result in leg or hip pain known as
. Although much less consistent
than the evidence for heart disease and stroke, there is limited evidence
that moderate alcohol consumption is associated with decreased risk of
peripheral arterial disease. Three large
have found moderate alcohol consumption to be associated with
significant decreases in several different indicators of peripheral arterial
disease . The most recent
prospective study found that the inverse association between alcohol intake
and peripheral arterial disease risk was significant in nonsmokers but
not smokers, suggesting that the adverse effects of cigarette smoking
on peripheral arterial disease risk may outweigh any protective effects
of alcohol consumption .
Type 2 Diabetes
A number of
have found that adults with moderate alcohol intakes
are at significantly lower risk of developing type 2
than adults who do not consume alcohol .
In contrast, several prospective studies found heavy alcohol consumption
to be associated with an increased risk of type 2 diabetes
. A recent meta-analysis of 15 prospective cohort studies concluded that moderate alcohol consumption reduces risk of type 2 diabetes by about 30%, but heavy alcohol consumption does not offer protection against the disease .
and decreased
insulin sensitivity are important factors leading to the development of
type 2 diabetes. Recent research suggests that moderate alcohol intake
may be associated with decreased serum insulin levels and improved insulin
sensitivity . On the other
hand, heavy alcohol consumption may increase the risk of type 2 diabetes
by contributing to obesity, especially abdominal obesity, disturbing carbohydrate
metabolism, and/or impairing pancreatic or liver function .
Dementia and Cognitive Decline
Although alcoholism is known to increase the risk of
impairment and , the
effects of moderate alcohol consumption on cognitive function and the
risk of dementia are less clear. While previous studies of alcohol intake
and the risk of dementia have reported conflicting results , two prospective studies that followed older adults without
dementia for six years found that those who reported moderate alcohol intakes
were significantly less likely to develop dementia than those who abstained
from alcohol . Compared to nondrinkers, a recent prospective study in 11,102 women participating in the Nurses' Health Study reported that moderate alcohol consumption was associated with improved cognitive function and less cognitive decline over a two-year period .
is the most common cause of dementia in the U.S. and Europe, but
vascular dementia (dementia due to insufficient cerebral blood flow) is
also an important cause. Two
(MRI) to examine relationships between alcohol intake
abnormalities
in the brains of older adults. Although one study found that infarctions
(areas of dead tissue) were less frequent in the brains of those reporting
moderate alcohol intakes compared to those who abstained from alcohol
, another study found no relationship
between alcohol intake and the presence of infarction .
In contrast, measures of brain atrophy, a characteristic of Alzheimer?s
disease and alcoholic dementia, were lowest in those who abstained
from alcohol and increased with alcohol consumption in both studies . Because of the complex nature of alcohol?s effects on the brain,
further research is needed to determine the risks and benefits of moderate
alcohol consumption with respect to cognitive function and dementia.
Gallstones
The majority of
and case-control studies
have found that men and women with moderate alcohol intakes are at a significantly
lower risk of
surgery (cholecystectomy)
than those who do not consume alcohol. Although the reasons for the consistent
inverse association between alcohol consumption and gallstone risk are
not entirely clear, regular alcohol intake may result in
that is less likely to crystallize into gallstones or stimulate gallbladder
emptying .
Health Risks of Moderate
Alcohol Consumption
Breast Cancer
The majority of
have found that breast cancer risk increases with alcohol
consumption . Regular alcohol
consumption as low as one or two drinks/day has been associated with modest
but significant increases in breast cancer risk. This dose-dependent relationship
between alcohol consumption and breast cancer risk has been observed for
premenopausal and postmenopausal breast cancer regardless of the type
of alcoholic beverage consumed. An analysis that pooled the results of
found a linear relationship between alcohol consumption and
breast cancer risk, such that each 10 gram (slightly less than one drink)
increase in daily alcohol consumption was associated with a 9% increase
in the risk of breast cancer .
A more recent analysis of ten prospective cohort studies and 43
concluded that each 10 gram increase in daily alcohol consumption
was associated with a 7% increase in a woman?s risk of breast cancer . The most recently published meta-analysis found that each 10 gram increment of alcohol intake was associated with a 10% increase in breast cancer risk .
Although the mechanisms for the consistent association between alcohol
intake and breast cancer risk have not been clearly identified, increased
circulating estrogen levels in women who consume even moderate amounts
of alcohol are likely to play an important role ,
. Current estimates are that about
one in eight women (13.3%) in the U.S. will develop breast cancer at some point in their
lifetime . Although there are
many risk factors for breast cancer, alcohol consumption is one of only
a few modifiable risk factors.
Folate and breast cancer:
Alcohol interferes with the absorption, transport, and metabolism of folate,
which is required for DNA methylation and DNA repair (see ). Alterations in these processes may result in
or altered , which increase the risk of cancer .
Several studies have provided evidence that sufficient folate intake may
modify the association between alcohol intake and breast cancer risk .
A prospective study that followed more than 88,000 women for 16 years
found that those who regularly consumed at least 15 grams/day of alcohol
(slightly more than one drink/day) and also consumed at least 300 micrograms
(mcg)/day of folate had a significantly lower risk of breast cancer than
those who consumed the same amount of alcohol but consumed less than 300
mcg/day of folate . However,
in a prospective cohort study of more than 66,000 postmenopausal
women, folate intake was not associated with breast cancer risk across levels of alcohol consumption, but alcohol intake of at least 15 grams/day was associated with an increased risk of breast cancer .
Although the interactions between folate, alcohol, and breast cancer risk
remain to be clarified, the available evidence suggests that women who
drink alcohol should take a daily multivitamin containing 400 mcg of folic
Each year in the United States, an estimated 40,000 infants are born
with problems related to fetal alcohol exposure .
Fetal alcohol syndrome is a cluster of physical and mental birth defects
associated with heavy alcohol consumption during pregnancy. Some of the
problems associated with fetal alcohol syndrome include facial abnormalities,
mental retardation, and poor growth. More moderate alcohol consumption
during pregnancy (7-14 drinks/week) has been associated with more subtle
effects on
and behavioral
development . Children of mothers
who drank moderately during pregnancy have been found to have problems
with memory, attention and learning, and behavior .
Since no safe level of alcohol consumption has been established at any
stage of pregnancy, pregnant women and women who are planning a pregnancy
should abstain from alcohol .
Progression to Heavy or
Hazardous Drinking
Some people, such as recovering alcoholics and those with family histories
of alcohol abuse or alcoholism, may not be able to maintain moderate drinking
habits. Susceptibility to alcoholism is affected by genetic, psychosocial,
and environmental factors. Children of an alcoholic parent have been found
to be at significantly higher risk of developing alcoholism than those
without an alcoholic parent .
This increase in risk is likely related to interactions between genetic
factors and factors related to the family environment. The National Institute
on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism recommends that people with a family history
of alcoholism, especially in a parent, approach moderate drinking carefully
Medication Interactions
In the liver, alcohol is metabolized by the same enzymes as many medications.
Therefore, alcohol consumption can affect the activation or breakdown
of a number of medications. The consumption of alcohol may also increase
sedation or drowsiness caused by numerous prescription and over-the-counter
medications. Although serious interactions between alcohol and medications
are more common in the presence of heavy alcohol consumption, even moderate
alcohol consumption may hypothetically increase the risk of some adverse reactions in
susceptible people . Women and
older adults are particularly at risk for interactions between alcohol
and medications . Many different
classes of prescription medication may interact adversely with alcohol,
including antibiotics, anticonvulsants, anticoagulants (Coumadin), antidepressants,
antidiabetic agents, antihypertensive agents, barbiturates, benzodiazepines
(sedatives), histamine H2-receptor blockers, muscle relaxants, and narcotic
and non-narcotic pain relievers. Over-the-counter medications and herbal
preparations may also interact with alcohol, including pain medications
like aspirin, acetaminophen (Tylenol), ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin), and
naproxen sodium (Aleve), cold and allergy medications like diphenhydramine
(Benadryl) and chlorpheniramine, heartburn medications like cimetidine
(Tagamet) and ranitidine (Zantac), and herbal preparations like chamomile,
valerian, and kava. To help avoid potentially serious interactions between
alcohol and medications, make sure your health care provider is aware
of your alcohol intake. Before taking prescription or over-the-counter
medications, read the product warning labels or consult a pharmacist or
health care provider to determine whether alcohol consumption increases
the risk of adverse effects. It may, in general, be advisable to separate taking any medication and drinking alcohol by 2-3 hours. For more information on potentially serious
interactions between alcohol and medications, see the .
Health Benefits of Heavy
Alcohol Consumption
Health Risks of Heavy
Alcohol Consumption
Cardiovascular disease
Hypertension
Heavy alcohol consumption has been consistently associated with an increased
risk of high blood pressure ()
. The results of numerous
clinical trials also indicate that reducing alcohol intake lowers blood
pressure in hypertensive and normotensive individuals. A
that combined the results of 15
found that reducing alcohol consumption resulted
in significant decreases in
are the result
of insufficient blood flow to an area of the brain, which may occur when
an artery supplying the brain becomes blocked by a blood clot. Hemorrhagic
strokes occur when a blood vessel ruptures and bleeds into the brain.
Although moderate alcohol consumption has been associated with decreased
risk of ischemic stroke, heavy alcohol consumption has been associated
with increased risk of ischemic stroke and hemorrhagic stroke. A
that combined the results of 19 prospective cohort studies and 16 case-control
studies found that heavy drinking more than doubled the risk of hemorrhagic
stroke and increased the risk of ischemic stroke by 70% .
Heavy alcohol consumption may increase the risk of stroke by contributing
(heart muscle damage), cardiac rhythm disturbances, and
(clotting) disorders. The anti-thrombotic effects of alcohol might simultaneously decrease the risk of ischemic stroke while increasing the risk of hemorrhagic stroke.
Cardiac Arrhythmias and Sudden Cardiac
The long-recognized association between bouts of heavy alcohol consumption
and cardiac rhythm disturbances ()
was called ?holiday heart syndrome? because it was first described in
people who were admitted to hospitals after holidays or weekends .
Atrial fibrillation is the cardiac arrhythmia most commonly associated
with heavy alcohol use .
Several studies have found heavy alcohol consumption (more than five drinks/day)
increases the risk of sudden cardiac
Alcoholic Cardiomyopathy
is a heart muscle disease caused by long-term heavy alcohol consumption
. The disease occurs in two stages:
an early asymptomatic stage, when the damage to the heart muscle has no
obvious symptoms, and a symptomatic stage, when the heart muscle is too
weak to pump effectively. Although the level of alcohol consumption resulting
in alcoholic cardiomyopathy has not been clearly established, people consuming
at least seven alcoholic drinks/day for more than five years are thought
to be at risk of developing asymptomatic alcoholic cardiomyopathy. Those
who continue to drink heavily ultimately develop heart failure. Research suggests that women may be more susceptible to alcohol?s toxic
effects on the heart muscle than men .
Liver Disease
Chronic excessive alcohol use is a major cause of illness
and death from liver disease in the United States .
Heavy alcohol consumption is known to increase the risk of alcoholic hepatitis,
a potentially fatal inflammation of the liver, as well as alcoholic cirrhosis,
the most advanced form of alcoholic liver disease. In cirrhosis, the formation
of fibrotic scar tissue results in progressive deterioration of liver
function. Complications of advanced liver disease include severe bleeding
from distended veins in the esophagus (esophageal varices), brain damage
(hepatic encephalopathy), fluid accumulation in the abdomen (ascites),
and kidney failure. A population-based study in Italy found that the risk
of alcoholic liver disease began to rise in those who reported consuming
more than 30 grams/day of alcohol (about 2.5 drinks/day) .
Serious liver disease has been found to develop in approximately 10% of
those who consume more than 60 grams/day of alcohol (5 drinks/day). However,
women are more susceptible to serious alcoholic liver disease than men
, as are individuals with hepatitis
C infection .
Heavy alcohol consumption has been found to increase the risk of cancer
at a number of sites . Heavy
alcohol consumption is consistently and dose-dependently associated with
increases in risk of cancers of the mouth, throat, , , and breast. Moreover, the
combination of smoking and alcohol results in even more dramatic increases
in cancer risks . Long-term heavy
alcohol consumption is associated with an increased risk of liver cancer,
which may be related to alcoholic cirrhosis of the liver or increased
susceptibility to cancer caused by viral hepatitis. Although less consistent,
there is evidence that the risk of colorectal cancer is increased with
heavy alcohol consumption, especially in the presence of inadequate folate
Alcohol-related Brain Disorders
Chronic heavy alcohol use and alcohol-dependence are associated with
detrimental effects on the brain and its function. Alcoholics have been
observed to suffer from cerebral atrophy (shrinkage of brain tissue),
which likely contributes to alcohol-associated
impairment .
In contrast to the progressive cerebral atrophy observed in Alzheimer?s
disease, alcohol-related cerebral atrophy may decrease after a period
of abstinence. Alcohol-related brain disorders may be associated with nutritional deficiencies, including thiamin
or niacin .
Pancreatitis
Pancreatitis is a painful inflammation of the pancreas. Acute pancreatitis
is characterized by the sudden onset of severe upper abdominal pain, often
accompanied by nausea and vomiting .
Although most attacks of acute pancreatitis require only supportive care,
a small percentage of people may experience serious or life-threatening
complications. About 30% of acute pancreatitis cases in the U.S. are alcohol-induced
. Chronic pancreatitis results
in progressive destruction of the pancreas leading to loss of pancreatic
function . Approximately 70-90%
of chronic pancreatitis cases in the U.S. and other developed countries
are alcohol induced. The risk of developing chronic pancreatitis increases
with the quantity and duration of alcohol consumption, although it is
uncommon at alcohol intakes less than 80 g/day (seven drinks/day) for
more than five years . Only a small percentage of heavy drinkers develop al thus, hereditary and environmental factors are also thought to play a role. The disease is more common in men than in women, in blacks compared to whites, and in smokers versus nonsmokers .
Accidents, Injury, and Violence
Alcohol use is associated with an increased risk of injury in a number
of circumstances, including motor vehicle accidents, falls, and fires
. Data from hospital emergency
departments indicate that consuming as little as one or two alcoholic
drinks in the previous six hours significantly increases the risk of injury
. Forty-one percent of all traffic
fatalities in the U.S. are alcohol-related .
Although the legal blood alcohol concentration (BAC) limit for drivers
ranges from 0.08-0.10 in the U.S., most scientific studies found significant
impairment of driving-related skills at a BAC of 0.05 .
For reference, a BAC of 0.05 might be achieved by a 175-pound male consuming
three standard alcoholic drinks in one hour or a 120-pound female consuming
two drinks in one hour . Excessive alcohol
use is associated with all forms of violence, including suicide, homicide,
domestic violence, sexual assault, and gang violence. Although the reasons
for alcohol-associated violence are complex, alcohol use appears to increase
the risk of violent behavior in some populations .
Written in January 2004 by:
Jane Higdon, Ph.D.
Linus Pauling Institute
Oregon State University
Updated in December 2007 by:
Victoria J. Drake, Ph.D.
Linus Pauling Institute
Oregon State University
Reviewed in December 2007 by:
Arthur L. Klatsky, M.D.
Senior Consultant in Cardiology
Adjunct Investigator, Division of Research
Kaiser Permanente Medical Care Program
Oakland, CA
Copyright & Linus
Pauling Institute
Disclaimer
The Linus Pauling Institute Micronutrient Information Center provides scientific information on the health aspects of dietary factors and supplements, foods, and beverages for the general public. The information is made available with the understanding that the author and publisher are not providing medical, psychological, or nutritional counseling services on this site. The information should not be used in place of a consultation with a competent health care or nutrition professional.
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